Albumin and interferon-ß fusion protein serves as an effective vaccine adjuvant to enhance antigen-specific CD8+ T cell-mediated antitumor immunity.

BACKGROUND: Type I interferons (IFN) promote dendritic cells maturation and subsequently enhance generation of antigen-specific CD8 +T cell for the control of tumor. Using type I interferons as an adjuvant to vaccination could prove to be a potent strategy. However, type I interferons have a short half-life. Albumin linked to a protein will prolong the half-life of the linked protein. METHODS: In this study, we explored the fusion of albumin to IFNß (Alb-IFNß) for its functional activity both in vitro and in vivo. We determined the half-life of Alb-IFNß following treatment in the serum, tumor, and tumor draining lymph nodes in both wild type and FcRn knockout mice. We characterized the ability of Alb-IFNß to enhance antigen-specific CD8+ T cells using ovalbumin (OVA) or human papillomavirus (HPV) E7 long peptides. Next, we evaluated the therapeutic antitumor effect of coadministration of AlbIFNß with antigenic peptides against HPVE7 expressing tumor and the treatment's ability to generate HPVE7 antigen specific CD8+ T cells. The contribution of the antitumor effect by lymphocytes was also examined by an antibody depletion experiment. The ability of Alb-IFNß to serve as an adjuvant was tested using clinical grade therapeutic protein-based HPV vaccine, TACIN. RESULTS: Alb-IFNß retains biological function and does not alter the biological activity of IFNß. In addition, Alb-IFNß extends half-life of IFNß in serum, lymph nodes and tumor. The coadministration of Alb-IFNß with OVA or HPVE7 antigenic peptides enhances antigen-specific CD8 +T cell immunity, and in a TC-1 tumor model results in a significant therapeutic antitumor effect. We found that CD8 +T cells and dendritic cells, but not CD4 +T cells, are important for the observed antitumor therapeutic effect mediated by Alb-IFNß. Finally, Alb-IFNß served as a potent adjuvant for TA-CIN for the treatment of HPV antigen expressing tumors. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, Alb-IFNß serves as a potent adjuvant for enhancement of strong antigen-specific CD8 +T cell antitumor immunity, reduction of tumor burden, and increase in overall survival. Alb-IFNß potentially can serve as an innovative adjuvant for the development of vaccines for the control of infectious disease and cancer.

Albumin fusion with granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor acts as an immunotherapy against chronic tuberculosis.

A long duration of treatment and emerging drug resistance pose significant challenges for global tuberculosis (TB) eradication efforts. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop novel strategies to shorten TB treatment regimens and to treat drug-resistant TB. Using an albumin-fusion strategy, we created a novel albumin-fused granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (albGM-CSF) molecule that harnesses albumin's long half-life and targeting abilities to enhance the biostability of GM-CSF and direct it to the lymph nodes, where the effects of GM-CSF can increase dendritic cell populations crucial for eliciting a potent immune response. In this study, we demonstrate that albGM-CSF serves as a novel immunotherapy for chronic Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infections by enhancing GM-CSF biostability in serum. Specifically, albumin is very safe, stable, and has a long half-life, thereby enhancing the biostability of GM-CSF. In the lungs and draining lymph nodes, albGM-CSF is able to increase the numbers of dendritic cells, which are crucial for the activation of naive T cells and for eliciting potent immune responses. Subcutaneous administration of albGM-CSF alone reduced the mean lung bacillary burden in mice with chronic tuberculosis infection. While GM-CSF administration was associated with IL-1ß release from Mtb-infected dendritic cells and macrophages, higher IL-1ß levels were observed in albGM-CSF-treated mice with chronic tuberculosis infection than in mice receiving GM-CSF. Albumin fusion with GM-CSF represents a promising strategy for the control of chronic lung tuberculosis infections and serves as a novel therapeutic vaccination platform for other infectious diseases and malignancies.

Vaccination Strategies for the Control and Treatment of HPV Infection and HPV-Associated Cancer.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most common sexually transmitted infection, currently affecting close to 80 million Americans. Importantly, HPV infection is recognized as the etiologic factor for numerous cancers, including cervical, vulval, vaginal, penile, anal, and a subset of oropharyngeal cancers. The prevalence of HPV infection and its associated diseases are a significant problem, affecting millions of individuals worldwide. Likewise, the incidence of HPV infection poses a significant burden on individuals and the broader healthcare system. Between 2011 and 2015, there were an estimated 42,700 new cases of HPV-associated cancers each year in the United States alone. Similarly, the global burden of HPV is high, with around 630,000 new cases of HPV-associated cancer occurring each year. In the last decade, a total of three preventive major capsid protein (L1) virus-like particle-based HPV vaccines have been licensed and brought to market as a means to prevent the spread of HPV infection. These prophylactic vaccines have been demonstrated to be safe and efficacious in preventing HPV infection. The most recent iteration of the preventive HPV vaccine, a nanovalent, L1-VLP vaccine, protects against a total of nine HPV types (seven high-risk and two low-risk HPV types), including the high-risk types HPV16 and HPV18, which are responsible for causing the majority of HPV-associated cancers. Although current prophylactic HPV vaccines have demonstrated huge success in preventing infection, existing barriers to vaccine acquisition have limited their widespread use, especially in low- and middle-income countries, where the burden of HPV-associated diseases is highest. Prophylactic vaccines are unable to provide protection to individuals with existing HPV infections or HPV-associated diseases. Instead, therapeutic HPV vaccines capable of generating T cell-mediated immunity against HPV infection and associated diseases are needed to ameliorate the burden of disease in individuals with existing HPV infection. To generate a cell-mediated immune response against HPV, most therapeutic vaccines target HPV oncoproteins E6 and E7. Several types of therapeutic HPV vaccine candidates have been developed including live-vector, protein, peptide, dendritic cell, and DNA-based vaccines. This chapter will review the commercially available prophylactic HPV vaccines and discuss the recent progress in the development of therapeutic HPV vaccines.

PD-1 blockade synergizes with intratumoral vaccination of a therapeutic HPV protein vaccine and elicits regression of tumor in a preclinical model.

INTRODUCTION: The human papillomavirus (HPV) encoded oncoproteins E6 and E7 are constitutively expressed in HPV-associated cancers, making them logical therapeutic targets. Intramuscular immunization of patients with HPV16 L2E7E6 fusion protein vaccine (TA-CIN) is well tolerated and induces HPV-specific cellular immune responses. Efficacy of PD-1 immune checkpoint blockade correlates with the level of tumor-infiltrating CD8 + T cells, yet most patients lack significant tumor infiltration of immune cells making immune checkpoint blockade suboptimal. We hypothesized that intratumoral vaccination with TA-CIN could increase the number of tumor-infiltrating CD8 + T cells, synergize with PD-1 blockade and result in better control of tumors compared with either PD-1 blockade or vaccination alone. METHODS: We examined the immunogenicity and antitumor effects of intratumoral vaccination with TA-CIN alone or in combination with PD-1 blockade in the TC-1 syngeneic murine tumor model expressing HPV16 E6/E7. RESULTS: Intratumoral vaccination with TA-CIN induced stronger antigen-specific CD8 + T cell responses and antitumor effects. Intratumoral TA-CIN vaccination generated a systemic immune response that was able to control distal TC-1 tumors. Furthermore, intratumoral TA-CIN vaccination induced tumor infiltration of antigen-specific CD8 + T cells. Knockout of Batf3 abolished antigen-specific CD8 + T cell responses and antitumor effects of intratumoral TA-CIN vaccination. Finally, PD-1 blockade synergizes with intratumoral TA-CIN vaccination resulting in significantly enhanced antigen-specific CD8 + T cell responses and complete regression of tumors, whereas either alone failed to control established TC-1 tumor. CONCLUSIONS: Our results provide rationale for future clinical testing of intratumoral TA-CIN vaccination in combination with PD-1 blockade for the control of HPV16-associated tumors.

NKG2D-Fc fusion protein promotes antitumor immunity through the depletion of immunosuppressive cells.

A major factor impeding the success of numerous therapeutic approaches in cancer is the immunosuppressive nature of the tumor microenvironment (TME). Hence, methods capable of reverting tumor immunosuppression through depletion or reprogramming of myeloid-derived suppressive cells (MDSCs) and regulatory T cells (Tregs) are of great clinical need. Here, we explore NKG2D-Fc as a modality to modulate antitumor immunity through the depletion of immunosuppressive MDSCs and Tregs in the TME. We have generated the NKG2D-Fc fusion protein and characterized its potential to mediate tumor control and overall survival in LL2 and MC38 murine models. Upon treatment of LL2 or MC38 tumor-bearing mice with NKG2D-Fc, we observe significant tumor control and enhanced survival compared to Fc control. When characterizing MDCSs and Tregs from tumor-bearing mice, we observe clear expression of NKG2D-ligand RAE1γ and subsequent binding of NKG2D-Fc fusion protein to both MDSCs and Tregs. Examining the immune profile of mice treated with NKG2D-Fc reveals significant depletion of MDSCs and Tregs in the TME, as well as an increase in NK cells likely due to the reversed suppressive TME. In conclusion, NKG2D-Fc induces antitumor immunity and tumor control through the depletion of MDSCs and Tregs, subsequently providing a niche for the infiltration and expansion of proinflammatory cells, such as NK cells. Strategies capable of modulating the immunosuppressive state in cancer are in high clinical demand. NKG2D-Fc is a simple, single tool capable of depleting both MDSCs and Tregs and should be further investigated as a therapeutic agent for the treatment of cancer.

Novel, genetically induced mouse model that recapitulates the histological morphology and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment of metastatic peritoneal carcinomatosis.

BACKGROUND: Peritoneal carcinomatosis is a hallmark of advanced peritoneal tumor progression, particularly for tubal/ovarian high-grade serous carcinomas (HGSCs). Patients with peritoneal carcinomatosis have poor survival rates and are difficult to treat clinically due to widespread tumor dissemination in the peritoneal cavity. METHODS: We developed a clinically relevant, genetically induced, peritoneal carcinomatosis model that recapitulates the histological morphology and immunosuppressive state of the tumor microenvironment of metastatic peritoneal HGSCs by intraperitoneally injecting shp53, AKT, c-Myc, luciferase and sleeping beauty transposase, followed by electroporation (EP) in the peritoneal cavity of immunocompetent mice (intraperitoneal (IP)/EP mice). RESULTS: Similar to the spread of human ovarian cancers, IP/EP mice displayed multiple tumor nodules attached to the surface of the abdomen. Histopathological analysis indicated that these tumors were epithelial in origin. These IP/EP mice also displayed a loss of CD3+ T cell infiltration in tumors, highly expressed inhibitory checkpoint molecules in tumor-infiltrating and global CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, and increased levels of transforming growth factor-ß in the ascites, all of which contribute to the promotion of tumor growth. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, our tumor model recapitulates clinical peritoneal HGSC metastasis, which makes it ideal for preclinical drug screening, testing of immunotherapy-based therapeutics and studying of the tumor biology of peritoneal carcinomatosis.

Annexin A5 as an immune checkpoint inhibitor and tumor-homing molecule for cancer treatment.

The interaction between immune cells and phosphatidylserine (PS) molecules exposed on the surface of apoptotic-tumor bodies, such as those induced by chemotherapies, contributes to the formation of an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). Annexin A5 (AnxA5) binds with high affinity to PS externalized by apoptotic cells, thereby hindering their interaction with immune cells. Here, we show that AnxA5 administration rescue the immunosuppressive state of the TME induced by chemotherapy. Due to the preferential homing of AnxA5 to the TME enriched with PS+ tumor cells, we demonstrate in vivo that fusing tumor-antigen peptide to AnxA5 significantly enhances its immunogenicity and antitumor efficacy when administered after chemotherapy. Also, the therapeutic antitumor effect of an AnxA5-peptide fusion can be further enhanced by administration of other immune checkpoint inhibitors. Our findings support the administration of AnxA5 following chemotherapy as a promising immune checkpoint inhibitor for cancer treatment.

TLR9 acts as a sensor for tumor-released DNA to modulate anti-tumor immunity after chemotherapy.

The tumor microenvironment exists in a state of dynamic equilibrium, in which a balance of agonist and antagonist signals govern the anti-tumor immune responses. Previous studies have shown that chemotherapy could shift this balance in favor of agonistic signals for the anti-tumor immune responses mounted by CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL), providing sufficiently high antigen density within the tumor. We undertook the current study to characterize the anti-tumor immune response following chemotherapy and its underlying mechanisms. We show that this 'adjuvant effect' of chemotherapy is, at least partially, mediated by the release of tumor DNA and acts through the Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) pathway. We found that tumor-released DNA causes accumulation, antigen uptake, and maturation of dendritic cells (DCs) in the tumor in a TLR9-dependent manner. These DCs subsequently migrate into the draining lymph nodes and prime tumor-specific CTLs. Our study provides novel insights to the molecular and cellular mechanisms by which chemotherapy converts the tumor microenvironment into a site permissive for the activation of a potent tumor-specific adaptive immune response.

Recurrent genetic alterations and biomarker expression in primary and metastatic squamous cell carcinomas of the vulva.

Using a comprehensive next-generation sequencing pipeline (143 genes), Oncomine Comprehensive v.2, we analyzed genetic alterations on a set of vulvar squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) with emphasis on the primary and metastatic samples from the same patient, to identify amenable therapeutic targets. Clinicopathologic features were reported and genomic DNA was extracted from 42 paraffin-embedded tumor tissues of 32 cases. PD-L1 expression was evaluated in 20 tumor tissues (10 cases with paired primary and metastatic tumors). Fifteen (88%) of 17 successfully analyzed HPV-unrelated SCCs harbored TP53 mutations. 2 different TP53 mutations had been detected in the same tumor in 4 of 15 cases. Other recurrent genetic alterations in this group of tumors included CDKN2a mutations (41%), HRAS mutations (12%), NOTCH1 mutations (12%) and BIRC3 (11q22.1-22.2) amplification (12%). Six HPV-related tumors harbored PIK3CA, BAP1, PTEN, KDR, CTNNB1, and BRCA2 mutations, of which, one case also contained TP53 mutation. Six cases showed identical mutations in paired primary site and distant metastatic location and four cases displayed different mutational profiles. PD-L1 expression was seen in 6 of 10 primary tumors and all 6 paired cases showed discordant PD-L1 expression in the primary and metastatic sites. Our results further confirmed the genetic alterations that are amenable to targeted therapy, offering the potential for individualized management strategies for the treatment of these aggressive tumors with different etiology. Discordant PD-L1 expression in the primary and metastatic vulvar SCCs highlights the importance of evaluation of PD-L1 expression in different locations to avoid false negative information provided for immunotherapy.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress enhances the antigen-specific T cell immune responses and therapeutic antitumor effects generated by therapeutic HPV vaccines.

BACKGROUND: Endoplasmic reticulum stress has a profound effect on cancer cell proliferation and survival, and also has the capacity to activate cells of the adaptive immune system. Multimodal treatment methods that utilize and combine conventional cancer therapies with antigen-specific immunotherapies have emerged as promising approaches for the treatment and control of cancer. However, it is not well known whether endoplasmic reticulum stress-inducing agents can influence the efficacy of tumor antigen-targeting vaccines. METHODS: In the past, we developed a therapeutic human papillomavirus (HPV) DNA vaccine that encodes for calreticulin (CRT) linked to the HPV16 E7 antigen (CRT/E7). In this study, we utilize the CRT/E7 and further encode for an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-inducing agent, 3-bromopyruvate (3-BrPA), in a preclinical model, by harnessing its potential to enhance HPV16 E7-specific CD8+ T cell immune responses as well as antitumor effects against E7-expressing tumors (TC-1 cells). E7-specific CD8+ T cells were added to evaluate the cytotoxicity of luciferase-expressing TC-1 tumor cells treated with 3-BrPA in vitro, as measured with an IVIS Luminescence Imaging System. We also determined the levels of ER stress markers in 3-BrPA-treated TC-1 cells. TC-1 tumor-bearing mice were treated with either 3-BrPA (10 mg/kg, intraperitoneal injection) and/or CRT/E7 DNA vaccine (30 µg/mouse). RESULTS: Treatment of E7-expressing TC-1 tumor cells with 3-BrPA induced significantly higher in vitro cytotoxicity and resulted in upregulation of endoplasmic reticulum stress markers (CHOP and GRP78). More importantly, combination treatment of 3-BrPA and the CRT/E7 DNA vaccine led to improved antigen-specific CD8+ T cell immune responses as well as therapeutic antitumor effects in TC-1 tumor-bearing mice. CONCLUSIONS: Our data indicate that 3-BrPA can enhance therapeutic HPV vaccine potency in generating improved antigen-specific immune responses and antitumor effects. These findings have important implications for future clinical translation and provide novel strategies for the treatment of HPV-associated diseases.

A novel function of API5 (apoptosis inhibitor 5), TLR4-dependent activation of antigen presenting cells.

Dendritic cell (DC)-based vaccines are recognized as a promising immunotherapeutic strategy against cancer. Various adjuvants are often incorporated to enhance the modest immunogenicity of DC vaccines. More specifically, many of the commonly used adjuvants are derived from bacteria. In the current study, we evaluate the use of apoptosis inhibitor 5 (API5), a damage-associated molecular pattern expressed by many human cancer cells, as a novel DC vaccine adjuvant. We showed that API5 can prompt activation and maturation of DCs and activate NFkB by stimulating the Toll-like receptor signaling pathway. We also demonstrated that vaccination with API5-treated DCs pulsed with OVA, E7, or AH1-A5 peptides led to the generation of OVA, E7, or AH1-A5-specific CD8 + T cells and memory T cells, which is associated with long term tumor protection and antitumor effects in mice, against EG.7, TC-1, and CT26 tumors. Additionally, we determined that API5-mediated DC activation and immune stimulation are dependent on TLR4. Lastly, we showed that the API5 protein sequence fragment that is proximal to its leucine zipper motif is responsible for the adjuvant effects exerted by API5. Our data provide evidence that support the use of API5 as a promising adjuvant for DC-based therapies, which can be applied in combination with other cancer therapies. Most notably, our results further support the continued investigation of human-based adjuvants.

Epithelial boost enhances antigen expression by vaccinia virus for the generation of potent CD8+ T cell-mediated antitumor immunity following DNA priming vaccination.

While both pNGVL4a-Sig/E7(detox)/HSP70 DNA vaccine and TA-HPV recombinant vaccinia viral vector-based vaccines have elicited HPV-specific CD8+ T cell responses in HPV16/E7-expressing tumor models, and been used as prime-boost regimen to enhance HPV-specific immune responses in humans (NCT00788164), the optimal route of administration for TA-HPV remains unclear. In a preclinical model, we examined the immunogenicity of priming with intramuscular pNGVL4a-Sig/E7(detox)/HSP70 followed by TA-HPV boost through different administration routes. We observed that priming twice with a pNGVL4a-Sig/E7(detox)/HSP70 followed by a single TA-HPV immunization boost through skin scarification generated the strongest antigen-specific CD8+ T cell response in C57BL/6 mice. These data translate to tumor control and prolonged survival of treated mice. Our results provide rationale for future clinical testing of intramuscular pNGVL4a-Sig/E7(detox)/HSP70 DNA vaccine prime, TA-HPV vaccine skin scarification boost immunization regimen for the control of HPV-associated diseases.

Intramuscular vaccination targeting mucosal tumor draining lymph node enhances integrins-mediated CD8+ T cell infiltration to control mucosal tumor growth.

Purpose: Mucosal immunization is suggested to be crucial for controlling tumors in the mucosal region; however, therapeutic DNA vaccination with electroporation in various mucosal sites has yet to become clinically adaptable. Since tumor-draining lymph nodes (tdLNs) have been suggested as immune-educated sites that can be utilized to mount a potent antitumor immune response, we examined whether intramuscular DNA vaccination with electroporation at sites that target the mucosal tdLNs could elicit mucosal immune response to restrict tumor growth. Experimental Design: The efficacy and mechanism of intramuscular administration of a therapeutic DNA vaccine with electroporation at different sites was examined by lymphocyte analysis, tumor growth, mouse survival, as well as integrin expression, in mice bearing orthotopic HPV16 E6/E7+ syngeneic TC-1 tumors in various mucosal areas. Results: While provoking comparable systemic CD8+ T cell responses, intramuscular hind leg vaccination generated stronger responses in cervicovaginal-draining LNs to control cervicovaginal tumors, whereas intramuscular front leg vaccination generated stronger responses in oral-draining LNs to control buccal tumors. Surgical removal of tdLNs abolished the antitumor effects of therapeutic vaccination. Mucosal-tdLN-targeted intramuscular vaccination induced the expression of mucosal-homing integrins LPAM-1 and CD49a by tumor-specific CD8+ T cells in the tdLNs. Inhibition of these integrins abolished the therapeutic effects of vaccination and the infiltration of tumor-specific CD8+ T cells into mucosal tumors. Conclusions: Our findings demonstrate that tumor draining lymph nodes targeted intramuscular immunization can effectively control mucosal tumors, which represents a readily adaptable strategy for treating mucosal cancers in humans.

Therapeutic DNA Vaccines for Human Papillomavirus and Associated Diseases.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) has long been recognized as the causative agent of cervical cancer. High-risk HPV types 16 and 18 alone are responsible for over 70% of all cases of cervical cancers. More recently, HPV has been identified as an etiological factor for several other forms of cancers, including oropharyngeal, anogenital, and skin. Thus, the association of HPV with these malignancies creates an opportunity to control these HPV lesions and HPV-associated malignancies through immunization. Strategies to prevent or to therapeutically treat HPV infections have been developed and are still pushing innovative boundaries. Currently, commercial prophylactic HPV vaccines are widely available, but they are not able to control established infections or lesions. As a result, there is an urgent need for the development of therapeutic HPV vaccines, to treat existing infections, and to prevent the development of HPV-associated cancers. In particular, DNA vaccination has emerged as a promising form of therapeutic HPV vaccine. DNA vaccines have great potential for the treatment of HPV infections and HPV-associated cancers due to their safety, stability, simplicity of manufacturability, and ability to induce antigen-specific immunity. This review focuses on the current state of therapeutic HPV DNA vaccines, including results from recent and ongoing clinical trials, and outlines different strategies that have been employed to improve their potencies. The continued progress and improvements made in therapeutic HPV DNA vaccine development holds great potential for innovative ways to effectively treat HPV infections and HPV-associated diseases.

Integration of Oncogenes via Sleeping Beauty as a Mouse Model of HPV16+ Oral Tumors and Immunologic Control.

Human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16) is the etiologic factor for cervical cancer and a subset of oropharyngeal cancers. Although several prophylactic HPV vaccines are available, no effective therapeutic strategies to control active HPV diseases exist. Tumor implantation models are traditionally used to study HPV-associated buccal tumors. However, they fail to address precancerous phases of disease progression and display tumor microenvironments distinct from those observed in patients. Previously, K14-E6/E7 transgenic mouse models have been used to generate spontaneous tumors. However, the rate of tumor formation is inconsistent, and the host often develops immune tolerance to the viral oncoproteins. We developed a preclinical, spontaneous, HPV16+ buccal tumor model using submucosal injection of oncogenic plasmids expressing HPV16-E6/E7, NRas G12V , luciferase, and sleeping beauty (SB) transposase, followed by electroporation in the buccal mucosa. We evaluated responses to immunization with a pNGVL4a-CRT/E7(detox) therapeutic HPV DNA vaccine and tumor cell migration to distant locations. Mice transfected with plasmids encoding HPV16-E6/E7, NRas G12V , luciferase, and SB transposase developed tumors within 3 weeks. We also found transient anti-CD3 administration is required to generate tumors in immunocompetent mice. Bioluminescence signals from luciferase correlated strongly with tumor growth, and tumors expressed HPV16-associated markers. We showed that pNGVL4a-CRT/E7(detox) administration resulted in antitumor immunity in tumor-bearing mice. Lastly, we demonstrated that the generated tumor could migrate to tumor-draining lymph nodes. Our model provides an efficient method to induce spontaneous HPV+ tumor formation, which can be used to identify effective therapeutic interventions, analyze tumor migration, and conduct tumor biology research. Cancer Immunol Res; 6(3); 305-19. ©2018 AACR.

Dissipative particle dynamics simulation of multicompartment micelle nanoreactor with channel for reactants.

The structural variation of multicompartment micelles is investigated using a dissipative particle dynamics simulation method for nano-reactor application. It turns out that well-defined multicompartment micelles with channel structures can be generated through the self-assembly of triblock copolymers consisting of a hydrophilic (A), a lipophilic (B), and a fluorophobic (C) block arranged in a B-A-C sequence: The corona and core are formed by the hydrophilic A block and the fluorophilic C block, respectively while the channel between the aqueous phase and core is formed by the lipophilic B block and the core. By performing a set of simulations, it is confirmed that channel size can be controlled as a function of the block length ratios between blocks A and B. Furthermore, it is also confirmed that the reactants pass through such channels to reach the micelle core by analyzing the pair correlation functions. By monitoring the change of the number of reactants in the multicompartment micelle, it is revealed that the diffusion of reactants into the core is slowed down as the concentration gradient is decreased. This work provides mesoscopic insight for the formation of multicompartment micelles and transport of reactants for use in the design of micelles as nanoreactors.

Enhancing antitumor immunogenicity of HPV16-E7 DNA vaccine by fusing DNA encoding E7-antigenic peptide to DNA encoding capsid protein L1 of Bovine papillomavirus.

BACKGROUND: Human papillomavirus (HPV) has been identified as the primary etiologic factor of cervical cancer, the fourth leading cause of cancer death in females worldwide. We have previously shown that coadministration of DNA encoding L1 capsid protein of Bovine papillomavirus (BPV) can enhance the antigen-specific immune response elicited by a therapeutic HPV16-E7 DNA vaccination. In this study, we sought to generate and evaluate the immunogenicity of a therapeutic HPV16-E7 DNA vaccine that encodes the fusion construct of HPV16-E7 and BPV-L1. RESULTS: We generated a therapeutic HPV16-E7 DNA vaccine construct, pcDNA3-BPVL1-E7(49-57), encoding the fusion sequence of full-length BPVL1 protein and a murine E7 antigenic epitope, aa49-57. Transfecting 293-Db cells with pcDNA3-BPVL1-E7(49-57) demonstrated that this DNA construct can effectively lead to the presentation of E7 epitope for the activation of E7-specific CD8+ T cells in vitro. Intramuscular vaccination of pcDNA3-BPVL1-E7(49-57) with electroporation generated a stronger E7-specific CD8+ T cell-mediated immune response than coadministration of pcDNA3-BPVL1 and pcDNA3-E7(49-57) in C57BL/6 mice. Furthermore, we observed that the strong E7-specific CD8+ T cell response elicited by pcDNA3-BPVL1-E7(49-57) vaccination translated into potent protective and therapeutic antitumor effects in C57BL/6 mice against HPV16-E7 expressing TC-1 tumor cells. Finally, using antibody depletion experiment, we showed that the antitumor immune response generated by pcDNA3-BPVL1-E7(49-57) is CD8+ T cell dependent, and CD4+ T cell and NK cell independent. CONCLUSION: Treatment with fusion construct of BPV-L1 and HPV16-E7 epitope can elicit effective E7-specific antitumor immune response in mice. Due to the potential ability of the fusion DNA construct to also trigger immune responses specific to the L1 protein, the current study serves to support future design of HPV DNA vaccines encoding fusion HPVL1-E6/E7 constructs for the generation of both T cell and B cell mediated immune responses against HPV infections and associated diseases.

Characterization of HPV18 E6-specific T cell responses and establishment of HPV18 E6-expressing tumor model.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) has been identified as the primary etiologic factor of cervical cancer, and subsets of anogenital and oropharyngeal cancers. HPV18 is the second most prevalent high-risk HPV type after HPV16. Furthermore, HPV18 is responsible for approximately 12% of cervical squamous cell carcinoma and 37% of cervical adenocarcinoma cases worldwide. In this study, we aimed to characterize the HPV18-E6-specific epitope and establish an HPV18 animal tumor model to evaluate the E6-specific immune response induced by our DNA vaccine. We vaccinated naïve C57BL/6 mice with a prototype DNA vaccine, pcDNA3-HPV18-E6, via intramuscular injection followed by electroporation, and analyzed the E6-specific CD8+ T cell responses by flow cytometry using a reported T cell epitope. We then characterized the MHC restriction element for the characterized HPV18-E6 epitope. Additionally, we generated an HPV18-E6-expressing tumor cell line to study the antitumor effect mediated by E6-specific immunity. We observed a robust HPV18-E6aa67-75 peptide-specific CD8+ T cell response after vaccination with pcDNA3-HPV18-E6. Further characterization demonstrated that this epitope was mainly restricted by H-2Kb, but was also weakly presented by HLA-A∗0201, as previously reported. We observed that vaccination with pcDNA3-HPV18-E6 significantly inhibited the growth of HPV18-E6-expressing tumor cells, TC-1/HPV18-E6, in mice. An antibody depletion study demonstrated that both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells are necessary for the observed antitumor immunity. The characterization of HPV18-E6-specific T cell responses and the establishment of HPV18-E6-expressing tumor cell line provide infrastructures for further development of HPV18-E6 targeted immunotherapy.

The current state of therapeutic and T cell-based vaccines against human papillomaviruses.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is known to be a necessary factor for many gynecologic malignancies and is also associated with a subset of head and neck malignancies. This knowledge has created the opportunity to control these HPV-associated cancers through vaccination. However, despite the availability of prophylactic HPV vaccines, HPV infections remain extremely common worldwide. In addition, while prophylactic HPV vaccines have been effective in preventing infection, they are ineffective at clearing pre-existing HPV infections. Thus, there is an urgent need for therapeutic and T cell-based vaccines to treat existing HPV infections and HPV-associated lesions and cancers. Unlike prophylactic vaccines, which generate neutralizing antibodies, therapeutic, and T cell-based vaccines enhance cell-mediated immunity against HPV antigens. Our review will cover various therapeutic and T cell-based vaccines in development for the treatment of HPV-associated diseases. Furthermore, we review the strategies to enhance the efficacy of therapeutic vaccines and the latest clinical trials on therapeutic and T cell-based HPV vaccines.

Perspectives for therapeutic HPV vaccine development.

BACKGROUND: Human papillomavirus (HPV) infections and associated diseases remain a serious burden worldwide. It is now clear that HPV serves as the etiological factor and biologic carcinogen for HPV-associated lesions and cancers. Although preventative HPV vaccines are available, these vaccines do not induce strong therapeutic effects against established HPV infections and lesions. These concerns create a critical need for the development of therapeutic strategies, such as vaccines, to treat these existing infections and diseases. MAIN BODY: Unlike preventative vaccines, therapeutic vaccines aim to generate cell-mediated immunity. HPV oncoproteins E6 and E7 are responsible for the malignant progression of HPV-associated diseases and are consistently expressed in HPV-associated diseases and cancer lesions; therefore, they serve as ideal targets for the development of therapeutic HPV vaccines. In this review we revisit therapeutic HPV vaccines that utilize this knowledge to treat HPV-associated lesions and cancers, with a focus on the findings of recent therapeutic HPV vaccine clinical trials. CONCLUSION: Great progress has been made to develop and improve novel therapeutic HPV vaccines to treat existing HPV infections and diseases; however, there is still much work to be done. We believe that therapeutic HPV vaccines have the potential to become a widely available and successful therapy to treat HPV and HPV-associated diseases in the near future.