Presence of Distractor Improves Time Estimation Performance in an Adult ADHD Sample.

Objective: It is widely accepted that patients with ADHD exhibit greater susceptibility to distractors, especially during tasks with higher working memory load demands. However, no study to date has specifically measured the impact of distractors on timing functions, although these have consistently shown alterations in ADHD. In this investigation, we aimed to elucidate the neural mechanisms mediating distractor effects on timing functions. Method: We employed a time estimation functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) paradigm including a distracting element in half of the trials in a sample of 21 patients with ADHD and 24 healthy controls. Results: As expected, the effect of the distractor was greater in ADHD patients, where it was associated with increased orbitofrontal activity compared with controls. Behaviorally, time estimation performance benefited from the presence of distractors in both groups. In turn, such improvement correlated with medial frontal and insular activity in the brain. Conclusion: These results suggest that distractors could be stimulating recruitment of frontal resources in ADHD, thus contributing to increase focus on the task.

Just-in-time response to reward as a function of ADHD symptom severity.

AIM: Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) neuroimaging studies have identified substantial differences in reward-related circuits on a trial-by-trial basis. However, no research to date has evaluated the effect of motivational context on neural activity in settings with intermittent reward in ADHD. The present study was designed to identify neural processes underlying both immediate effects of reward and sustained effects of reward associated with motivational context in adult ADHD patients. METHODS: We used a functional magnetic resonance imaging paradigm, including a time estimation task with constant versus intermittent reward conditions, in a sample of 21 medication-naïve adults with combined ADHD and 24 healthy adults. RESULTS: Although no between-group neural differences were detected, orbitofrontal activity dropped in association with high ADHD symptom severity during the transition from initial non-reward context blocks to subsequent reward context blocks. In turn, ADHD symptom severity predicted higher orbitofrontal activity in response to immediate reward versus no reward within reward context blocks. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that high ADHD symptom severity scorers adopted a 'just-in-time' strategy, involving the recruitment of reward processing brain areas in the face of immediate reward rather than a sustained response to motivational context.

Mediterranean diet adherence among Catalonian adolescents: socio-economic and lifestyle factors.

AIM: This study aims to describe the adherence to the Mediterranean diet (MD), using the KIDMED questionnaire, in a sample of Catalonian adolescents and to assess the association between the MD adherence and socio-economic and lifestyle behaviours. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Data are part of a multi-centre longitudinal study designed for the reduction of risk factors of eating and weight-related problems in adolescents. Here, a cross-sectional analysis was performed with the baseline data, academic period 2010-11. The participants were 1,502 adolescents recruited from 11 schools from the province of Barcelona. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: The results showed a higher level of MD adherence when parents had higher educational level, and when adolescents reported a low level of screen-time, and high weekly physical activity.

Mediterranean diet adherence among Catalonian adolescents: socio-economic and lifestyle factors / Adherencia a la dieta mediterránea en adolescentes catalanes: factores socioeconómicos y de estilo de vida

Aim: This study aims to describe the adherence to the Mediterranean diet (MD), using the KIDMED questionnaire, in a sample of Catalonian adolescents and to assess the association between the MD adherence and socio-economic and lifestyle behaviours. Material and methods: Data are part of a multi-centre longitudinal study designed for the reduction of risk factors of eating and weight-related problems in adolescents. Here, a cross-sectional analysis was performed with the baseline data, academic period 2010-11. The participants were 1,502 adolescents recruited from 11 schools from the province of Barcelona. Results and conclusions: The results showed a higher level of MD adherence when parents had higher educational level, and when adolescents reported a low level of screen-time, and high weekly physical activity (AU)

Objetivo: el objetivo del artículo consiste en describir, mediante el cuestionario KIDMED, la adherencia a la dieta mediterránea (DM) de una muestra de adolescentes catalanes y la asociación entre los niveles de adherencia a la DM y determinadas conductas relacionadas con el estilo de vida y los factores socioeconómicos. Material y métodos: los datos forman parte de un estudio longitudinal multicéntrico diseñado para evaluar los factores de riesgo relacionados con los problemas de la alimentación y el peso. En este trabajo se analizan, en un corte transversal, los datos de la línea base recogidos en el periodo académico 2010-11. Los participantes fueron 1.502 adolescentes reclutados en 11 escuelas de la provincia de Barcelona. Resultados y conclusiones: los resultados indican un elevado nivel de adherencia a la DM cuando los padres tienen un nivel educativo alto y cuando los adolescentes presentan un bajo consumo de tiempo de pantalla y un nivel elevado de actividad física semanal (AU)

The MABIC project: An effectiveness trial for reducing risk factors for eating disorders.

Challenges in the prevention of disordered eating field include moving from efficacy to effectiveness and developing an integrated approach to the prevention of eating and weight-related problems. A previous efficacy trial indicated that a universal disordered eating prevention program, based on the social cognitive model, media literacy educational approach and cognitive dissonance theory, reduced risk factors for disordered eating, but it is unclear whether this program has effects under more real-world conditions. This effectiveness trial tested whether this program has effects when previously trained community providers in an integrated approach to prevention implement the intervention. The research design involved a multi-center non-randomized controlled trial with baseline, post-test and 1-year follow-up measures. The sample included girls in the 8th grade from six schools (n = 152 girls) in a city near Barcelona (intervention group), and from eleven schools (n = 413 girls) in four neighboring towns (control group). The MABIC risk factors of disordered eating were assessed as main outcomes. Girls in the intervention group showed significantly greater reductions in beauty ideal internalization, disordered eating attitudes and weight-related teasing from pretest to 1-year follow-up compared to girls in the control group, suggesting that this program is effective under real-world conditions.

Brain activity and cognition: a connection from thermodynamics and information theory.

The connection between brain and mind is an important scientific and philosophical question that we are still far from completely understanding. A crucial point to our work is noticing that thermodynamics provides a convenient framework to model brain activity, whereas cognition can be modeled in information-theoretical terms. In fact, several models have been proposed so far from both approaches. A second critical remark is the existence of deep theoretical connections between thermodynamics and information theory. In fact, some well-known authors claim that the laws of thermodynamics are nothing but principles in information theory. Unlike in physics or chemistry, a formalization of the relationship between information and energy is currently lacking in neuroscience. In this paper we propose a framework to connect physical brain and cognitive models by means of the theoretical connections between information theory and thermodynamics. Ultimately, this article aims at providing further insight on the formal relationship between cognition and neural activity.

The neuroanatomical basis of panic disorder and social phobia in schizophrenia: a voxel based morphometric study.

OBJECTIVE: It is known that there is a high prevalence of certain anxiety disorders among schizophrenic patients, especially panic disorder and social phobia. However, the neural underpinnings of the comorbidity of such anxiety disorders and schizophrenia remain unclear. Our study aims to determine the neuroanatomical basis of the co-occurrence of schizophrenia with panic disorder and social phobia. METHODS: Voxel-based morphometry was used in order to examine brain structure and to measure between-group differences, comparing magnetic resonance images of 20 anxious patients, 20 schizophrenic patients, 20 schizophrenic patients with comorbid anxiety, and 20 healthy control subjects. RESULTS: Compared to the schizophrenic patients, we observed smaller grey-matter volume (GMV) decreases in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and precentral gyrus in the schizophrenic-anxiety group. Additionally, the schizophrenic group showed significantly reduced GMV in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, precentral gyrus, orbitofrontal cortex, temporal gyrus and angular/inferior parietal gyrus when compared to the control group. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that the comorbidity of schizophrenia with panic disorder and social phobia might be characterized by specific neuroanatomical and clinical alterations that may be related to maladaptive emotion regulation related to anxiety. Even thought our findings need to be replicated, our study suggests that the identification of neural abnormalities involved in anxiety, schizophrenia and schizophrenia-anxiety may lead to an improved diagnosis and management of these conditions.

Sociocultural influences and body change strategies in Spanish adolescent boys of different weight status.

The aim of the present study was to examine the association between sociocultural influences to attain an ideal body and body change strategies (BCS) in Spanish adolescent boys of different weight status. A total of 594 Spanish boys (M=13.94 years, SD=0.20) participated. Measures included in the study were weight status according to body mass index (BMI), sociocultural influences (perceived pressures to attain an ideal body, general internalization of an ideal body, internalization of an athletic-ideal body), BCS to lose/control weight (dieting, healthy and unhealthy weight-control behaviors), and BCS to gain weight and muscles. Underweight boys engaged more frequently in weight-gain behaviors. Overweight boys reported higher levels of perceived sociocultural pressures and general internalization compared to normal-weight boys, and were more likely to be engaged in BCS to lose/control weight compared with the other weight-status groups. There were no differences between groups in terms of internalization of an athletic-ideal body and BCS to increase muscles. Future research and prevention programs should consider male-specific behaviors and weight-status differences.

Self-perceived weight status, dieting, and unhealthy weight-control behaviors among Spanish male adolescents.

INTRODUCTION: Self-perceived weight status among adolescents has been associated with weight-control behaviors. However, this relationship varies across weight status. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to examine the effect of self-perceived weight status on dieting and unhealthy weight-control behaviors among Spanish male adolescents, across weight status. METHOD: Participants were 597 Spanish male adolescents (M = 13.94 years old, SD = 0.60). Body weight and height were measured in situ. Self-perceived weight status, dieting, and unhealthy weight-control behaviors were evaluated. RESULTS: The adolescents were inaccurate on estimating their weight status. Those who were overweight or obese, or who perceived themselves to be so, were more likely to report dieting and unhealthy weight-control behaviors. DISCUSSION: There is a need to promote healthier eating behaviors among adolescents, and to take into account the fact that self-perceived weight status may hinder the adoption of such behaviors.

Introducción: El estatus de peso percibido se ha asociado a conductas de control del peso en adolescentes. Esta relación varía de acuerdo al estatus de peso corporal. Objetivos: Explorar el efecto del estatus de peso percibido sobre la práctica de dieta y conductas no saludables de control del peso en adolescentes varones españoles, considerando su estatus de peso. Método: Participaron 597 adolescentes (M = 13,94 años, DS = 0,60). Se registró in situ la talla y peso corporal. Se evaluó el peso percibido, la práctica de dieta y conductas no saludables de control del peso. Resultados: Los adolescentes fueron inexactos al estimar su estatus de peso. Aquellos con sobrepeso, obesidad o los que se percibían como tales, fueron los que más informaron hacer dieta y conductas no saludables de control del peso. Discusión: Es necesario promover conductas alimentarias saludables entre los adolescentes y considerar que el estatus de peso percibido puede limitar la adopción de estos comportamientos.

Self-perceived weight status, dieting and unhealthy weight-control behaviors among Spanish male adolescents / Estatus de peso percibido, dieta y conductas no saludables de control del peso en adolescentes varones españoles

Introduction: Self-perceived weight status among adolescents has been associated with weight-control behaviors. However, this relationship varies across weight status. Objectives: The aim of this study was to examine the effect of self-perceived weight status on dieting and unhealthy weight-control behaviors among Spanish male adolescents, across weight status. Method: Participants were 597 Spanish male adolescents (M = 13.94 years old, SD = 0.60). Body weight and height were measured in situ. Self-perceived weight status, dieting, and unhealthy weight-control behaviors were evaluated. Results: The adolescents were inaccurate on estimating their weight status. Those who were overweight or obese, or who perceived themselves to be so, were more likely to report dieting and unhealthy weight-control behaviors. Discussion: There is a need to promote healthier eating behaviors among adolescents, and to take into account the fact that self-perceived weight status may hinder the adoption of such behaviors (AU)

Introducción: El estatus de peso percibido se ha asociado a conductas de control del peso en adolescentes. Esta relación varía de acuerdo al estatus de peso corporal. Objetivos: Explorar el efecto del estatus de peso percibido sobre la práctica de dieta y conductas no saludables de control del peso en adolescentes varones españoles, considerando su estatus de peso. Método: Participaron 597 adolescentes (M = 13,94 años, DS = 0,60). Se registró in situ la talla y peso corporal. Se evaluó el peso percibido, la práctica de dieta y conductas no saludables de control del peso. Resultados: Los adolescentes fueron inexactos al estimar su estatus de peso. Aquellos con sobrepeso, obesidad o los que se percibían como tales, fueron los que más informaron hacer dieta y conductas no saludables de control del peso. Discusión: Es necesario promover conductas alimentarias saludables entre los adolescentes y considerar que el estatus de peso percibido puede limitar la adopción de estos comportamientos (AU)

A school-based program implemented by community providers previously trained for the prevention of eating and weight-related problems in secondary-school adolescents: the MABIC study protocol.

BACKGROUND: The prevention of eating disorders and disordered eating are increasingly recognized as public health priorities. Challenges in this field included moving from efficacy to effectiveness and developing an integrated approach to the prevention of a broad spectrum of eating and weight-related problems. A previous efficacy trial indicated that a universal disordered eating prevention program, based on the social cognitive model, media literacy educational approach and cognitive dissonance theory, reduced risk factors for disordered eating, but it is unclear whether this program has effects under more real-world conditions. The main aim of this effectiveness trial protocol is to test whether this program has effects when incorporating an integrated approach to prevention and when previously-trained community providers implement the intervention. METHODS/DESIGN: The research design involved a multi-center non-randomized controlled trial with baseline, post and 1-year follow-up measures. Six schools from the city of Sabadell (close to Barcelona) participated in the intervention group, and eleven schools from four towns neighboring Sabadell participated in the control group. A total of 174 girls and 180 boys in the intervention group, and 484 girls and 490 boys in the control group were registered in class lists prior to baseline. A total of 18 community providers, secondary-school class tutors, nurses from the Catalan Government's Health and School Program, and health promotion technicians from Sabadell City Council were trained and delivered the program. Shared risk factors of eating and weight-related problems were assessed as main measures. DISCUSSION: It will be vital for progress in disordered eating prevention to conduct effectiveness trials, which test whether interventions are effective when delivered by community providers under ecologically valid conditions, as opposed to tightly controlled research trials. The MABIC project will provide new contributions in this transition from efficacy to effectiveness and new data about progress in the integrated approach to prevention. Pending the results, the effectiveness trial meets the effectiveness standards set down by the Society for Prevention Research. This study will provide new evidence to improve and enhance disordered eating prevention programs. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN47682626.

Unhealthy weight-control behaviours, dieting and weight status: a cross-cultural comparison between North American and Spanish adolescents.

The aim of the current study was to examine and compare dieting and unhealthy weight-control behaviours (UWCB) in population-based samples in two large urban areas in Spain (Barcelona) and in the USA (Twin Cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota). Additionally, use of UWCB across weight categories was explored in both samples. Participants included 1501 adolescents from Barcelona (48% girls, 52% boys) and 2793 adolescents from the Twin Cities (53% girls, 47% boys). The main outcome measures were dieting, UWCB (less extreme and extreme) and weight status. Although dieting and UWCB were prevalent in both samples, particularly among girls, the prevalence was higher in the US sample. In both countries, the report of dieting and use of UWCB was highest among overweight and obese youth. Prevention interventions that address the broad spectrum of eating and weight-related problems should be warranted in light of the high prevalence and co-occurrence of overweight and unhealthy weight-related behaviours.

Analysis of the factor structure of the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire (SATAQ-3) in Spanish secondary-school students through exploratory structural equation modeling.

The aims of the present study were: (1) to assess the factor structure of the SATAQ-3 in Spanish secondary-school students by means of exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) models; and (2) to study its invariance by sex and school grade. ESEM is a technique that has been proposed for the analysis of internal structure that overcomes some of the limitations of EFA and CFA. Participants were 1559 boys and girls in grades seventh to tenth. The results support the four-factor solution of the original version, and reveal that the best fit was obtained with ESEM, excluding Item 20 and with correlated uniqueness between reverse-keyed items. Our version shows invariance by sex and grade. The differences between scores of different groups are in the expected direction, and support the validity of the questionnaire. We recommend a version excluding Item 20 and without reverse-keyed items.

Programas de prevención universal de las alteraciones alimentarias: metodologías de evaluación, resultados y líneas de futuro / Universal prevention programs on disordered eating: assessment methodologies, results and future lines

En este trabajo se revisan los 47 programas de prevención universal de las alteraciones alimentarias publicados en el período 1993-2011, administrados principalmente en el ámbito escolar y dirigido a población infantil y adolescente. Cada programa ha sido revisado atendiendo a elementos relacionados con el diseño (rigor metodológico, seguimiento, grupo control, especificidad, encubrimiento, replicación, efectividad, ámbitos de aplicación e instrumentos de evaluación). Esta revisión permite analizar la evolución de este campo de estudio en el período especificado. Progresivamente se ha incrementado el rigor y sofisticación metodológica de los diseños, pero todavía permanecen sin resolver problemas importantes, como la ausencia de un conjunto consensuado de medidas de eficacia de calidad, entre otros. A modo de conclusión, se sugieren elementos de debate sobre la orientación futura que debería adoptar el desarrollo de nuevos programas de prevención en este ámbito. Entre otros, la necesidad de adaptarlos a la población masculina, las características idóneas de la población diana en cuanto a edad y nivel de riesgo, los contenidos específicos que deberían tener, la aproximación teórica en la que deberían fundamentarse, su intensidad y duración, y la necesidad de integrar la prevención de los trastornos de la conducta alimentaria y de la obesidad.

In this paper are reviewed 47 universal prevention programs on eating disorders and disordered eating published in the period 1993-2011, mainly administered in schools and aimed at children and adolescents. In each program have been revised the elements linked to the design (methodological rigor, follow-up, control group, specificity, covert approach, replication, effectiveness, areas of application and measures). This review allows analyze the evolution of this field of study in the specified period. Progressively has been increased the rigor and methodological sophistication of designs, but they are still with some major problems, such as the absence of a set of agreed measures, among others. Finally, we suggest some elements of debate on the future direction to be taken by the development of new prevention programs in this area. Among others, the need to adapt to male population, ideal characteristics of target population in age and level of risk, the specific content that should be worked, the theoretical approach which should be based, about the intensity and duration, and the need to integrate the prevention of eating disorders and obesity.

Impact of a school-based disordered eating prevention program in adolescent girls: general and specific effects depending on adherence to the interactive activities.

This study assessed the impact of a school-based program aimed at preventing disordered eating. The program was based on the media-literacy approach and has interactive format. The program was assessed under strong methodological conditions. Seven schools with 263 Spanish adolescent girls in the area of Barcelona, were randomly assigned to either the complete prevention program condition, the partial program condition or the non-treatment control condition, and assessed at pre, post and 6-month follow-up. The program was effective in generating positive changes at follow-up. The effects sizes (ES(d) = 0.29 to ES(d) = 0.38) were greater, on average, than that obtained up to now in selective-universal programs, and similar or greater than that achieved by targeted prevention programs. The results indicate a greater and relevant effect size of the intervention in those participants who completed the inter-session interactive activities (ES(d) = 0.29 to ES(d) = 0.45) although the differences were not significant. These results suggest the importance of monitoring adherence to the activities in all programs defined as "interactive". The implications and limitations of this study are discussed.

General of a school-based disordered eating prevention program in adolescent girls: general and specific effects depending on adherence to the interactive activities

This study assessed the impact of a school-based program aimed at preventing disordered eating. The program was based on the media-literacy approach and has interactive format. The program was assessed under strong methodological conditions. Seven schools with 263 Spanish adolescent girls in the area of Barcelona, were randomly assigned to either the complete prevention program condition, the partial program condition or the non-treatment control condition, and assessed at pre, post and 6-month follow-up. The program was effective in generating positive changes at follow-up. The effects sizes (ESd = 0.29 to ESd = 0.38) were greater, on average, than that obtained up to now in selective-universal programs, and similar or greater than that achieved by targeted prevention programs. The results indicate a greater and relevant effect size of the intervention in those participants who completed the inter-session interactive activities (ESd = 0.29 to ESd = 0.45) although the differences were not significant. These results suggest the importance of monitoring adherence to the activities in all programs defined as «interactive». The implications and limitations of this study are discussed (AU)

Este estudio evaluó el impacto de un programa basado en la escuela dirigido a prevenir las alteraciones del comportamiento alimentario. El programa se fundamentó en la perspectiva de alfabetización en medios de comunicación, tiene un formato interactivo y fue evaluado mediante rigurosas condiciones metodológicas. La muestra del estudio estaba constituida por 263 chicas adolescentes procedentes de siete escuelas del área geográfica de Barcelona, que fueron asignadas aleatoriamente a la condición de programa completo, a la condición de programa parcial o a la condición de grupo control sin tratamiento. La evaluación se realizó en tres momentos: pre, post y seis meses de seguimiento. El programa se ha mostrado eficaz produciendo cambios favorables en el seguimiento. Los tamaños del efecto (ESd = 0.29 a ESd = 0.38), en promedio, son superiores a los obtenidos por programas universal-selectivos, y similares o superiores a los obtenidos por programas de prevención dirigida. Los resultados indican un mayor tamaño del efecto de la intervención en los participantes que completaron las actividades interactivas entre sesiones (ESd = 0.29 a ESd = 0.45), aunque las diferencias no fueron estadísticamente significativas. Estos resultados sugieren la importancia de monitorizar la adhesión a las actividades en los programas definidos como «interactivos». Se discuten las implicaciones y las limitaciones de este estudio (AU)

Quantitative MR analysis of caudate abnormalities in pediatric ADHD: proposal for a diagnostic test.

Most morphometric magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies of pediatric attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with appropriate sample sizes reveal a decreased right caudate nucleus volume. Recently, our group reported that this decrease is mainly due to a diminished right caudate body volume (rCBV). Here, we hypothesize that, employing either the total bilateral caudate volume (tbCV) or the bilateral caudate body volume (bCBV) as scaling variables, the rCBV/tbCV and rCBV/bCBV ratios could be found diminished and used as a basis of an imaging diagnostic test. Volumetric caudate nucleus data were obtained from a case-control morphometric MRI study with 39 ADHD subjects and 39 handedness- and IQ-matched controls, using a novel semi-automated caudate segmentation procedure. Student t-tests comparing each relevant ratio were conducted between the two samples. After splitting the samples into two groups, a receiving operator characteristic (ROC) analysis was conducted on the training group to determine the optimal cut-off. Its performance was then examined on the test group. The rCBV/bCBV ratio was found to be statistically different. For a value equal or inferior to 0.48, the specificity was 95.00%. We propose using the rCBV/bCBV ratio to assist in the diagnosis of ADHD in children.

Enhanced neural activity in frontal and cerebellar circuits after cognitive training in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

The brain is a plastic entity that can undergo dynamic changes throughout the lifespan as a result of training. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is commonly treated with psychostimulant medication, and the prevalence of ADHD medication prescription is a topic of heated scientific debate. In addition, cognitive training is frequently provided to patients with ADHD. Although psychostimulant effects have been thoroughly investigated, no previous studies have assessed the neural effects of cognitive training in ADHD. We applied fMRI-paradigms of response inhibition and selective attention to chart the effects of a 10-day cognitive training program in 19 unmedicated ADHD children receiving either cognitive or control training. The two resulting longitudinal datasets were analyzed using whole-brain random-effects general linear models. Although we observed no increases of activity in the control group, both fMRI-datasets revealed enhanced activity after cognitive training in neural structures closely related to ADHD pathophysiology. On the inhibition paradigm, our results indicated increases in orbitofrontal, superior frontal, middle temporal, and inferior frontal cortex. The attentional task was characterized by increased activity in the cerebellum, which correlated with improvement on in-scanner measures of attention. Our findings provide preliminary evidence that cognitive training enhances activity in neural structures typically affected by the disorder. Similar results have been obtained following methylphenidate administration, suggesting that training of cognitive functions may mimic the effects of psychostimulant medication on the brain. These findings postulate a neural account for the potency of cognitive training in ADHD, and hold clinical implications, supporting the inclusion of training programs in standard ADHD-treatment.

Cerebellar neurometabolite abnormalities in pediatric attention/deficit hyperactivity disorder: a proton MR spectroscopic study.

We designed a case-control proton magnetic resonance spectroscopic study comparing the cerebellar and prefrontal regions of a group of 17 ADHD (attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder) medicated children and a group of 17 control children matched for laterality, gender and age. As we had found decreased gray matter volume in the right prefrontal region and the left cerebellar hemisphere in a previous voxel-based morphometry study conducted on an independent ADHD sample, we tested the hypothesis that these regions should show neurometabolite abnormalities. MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) was performed with a 1.5 T system; spectral acquisition was performed with a single-voxel technique and a PRESS sequence. Two volumes of interest were selected in the right prefrontal region and the left cerebellar hemisphere. NAA (N-acetylaspartate), Cre (creatine), Cho (choline), MI (myo-inositol) and Glx (glutamate-glutamine) resonance intensities were absolutely quantified. In the left cerebellar hemisphere, ADHD children showed significant decreased MI and NAA absolute concentrations with high effect sizes (p=0.004, ES=1.184; p=0.001, ES=1.083). The diminished absolute concentration of the NAA could be related to a gray matter volume decrease in the same cerebellar region found in the previous voxel-based morphometry MRI study, while the reduced MI absolute concentration could express a decreased glial density. This is the first proton MR spectroscopic study examining the cerebellum and it provides additional support for the role of cerebellum in the ADHD neurobiology.