Composting-Like Conditions Are More Efficient for Enrichment and Diversity of Organisms Containing Cellulase-Encoding Genes than Submerged Cultures.

Cost-effective biofuel production from lignocellulosic biomass depends on efficient degradation of the plant cell wall. One of the major obstacles for the development of a cost-efficient process is the lack of resistance of currently used fungal enzymes to harsh conditions such as high temperature. Adapted, thermophilic microbial communities provide a huge reservoir of potentially interesting lignocellulose-degrading enzymes for improvement of the cellulose hydrolysis step. In order to identify such enzymes, a leaf and wood chip compost was enriched on a mixture of thermo-chemically pretreated wheat straw, poplar and Miscanthus under thermophile conditions, but in two different set-ups. Unexpectedly, metagenome sequencing revealed that incubation of the lignocellulosic substrate with compost as inoculum in a suspension culture resulted in an impoverishment of putative cellulase- and hemicellulase-encoding genes. However, mimicking composting conditions without liquid phase yielded a high number and diversity of glycoside hydrolase genes and an enrichment of genes encoding cellulose binding domains. These identified genes were most closely related to species from Actinobacteria, which seem to constitute important players of lignocellulose degradation under the applied conditions. The study highlights that subtle changes in an enrichment set-up can have an important impact on composition and functions of the microcosm. Composting-like conditions were found to be the most successful method for enrichment in species with high biomass degrading capacity.

Importance of Rhodococcus strains in a bacterial consortium degrading a mixture of hydrocarbons, gasoline, and diesel oil additives revealed by metatranscriptomic analysis.

A bacterial consortium (Mix3) composed of microorganisms originating from different environments (soils and wastewater) was obtained after enrichment in the presence of a mixture of 16 hydrocarbons, gasoline, and diesel oil additives. After addition of the mixture, the development of the microbial composition of Mix3 was monitored at three different times (35, 113, and 222 days) using fingerprinting method and dominant bacterial species were identified. In parallel, 14 bacteria were isolated after 113 days and identified. Degradation capacities for Mix3 and the isolated bacterial strains were characterized and compared. At day 113, we induced the expression of catabolic genes in Mix3 by adding the substrate mixture to resting cells and the metatranscriptome was analyzed. After addition of the substrate mixture, the relative abundance of Actinobacteria increased at day 222 while a shift between Rhodococcus and Mycobacterium was observed after 113 days. Mix3 was able to degrade 13 compounds completely, with partial degradation of isooctane and 2-ethylhexyl nitrate, but tert-butyl alcohol was not degraded. Rhodococcus wratislaviensis strain IFP 2016 isolated from Mix3 showed almost the same degradation capacities as Mix3: these results were not observed with the other isolated strains. Transcriptomic results revealed that Actinobacteria and in particular, Rhodococcus species, were major contributors in terms of total and catabolic gene transcripts while other species were involved in cyclohexane degradation. Not all the microorganisms identified at day 113 were active except R. wratislaviensis IFP 2016 that appeared to be a major player in the degradation activity observed in Mix3.

Ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE)-degrading microbial communities in enrichments from polluted environments.

The ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE) degradation capacity and phylogenetic composition of five aerobic enrichment cultures with ETBE as the sole carbon and energy source were studied. In all cases, ETBE was entirely degraded to biomass and CO2. Clone libraries of the 16S rRNA gene were prepared from each enrichment. The analyses of the DNA sequences obtained showed different taxonomic compositions with a majority of Proteobacteria in three cases. The two other enrichments have different microbiota with an abundance of Acidobacteria in one case, whereas the microbiota in the second was more diverse (majority of Actinobacteria, Chlorobi and Gemmatimonadetes). Actinobacteria were detected in all five enrichments. Several bacterial strains were isolated from the enrichments and five were capable of degrading ETBE and/or tert-butyl alcohol (TBA), a degradation intermediate. The five included three Rhodococcus sp. (IFP 2040, IFP 2041, IFP 2043), one Betaproteobacteria (IFP 2047) belonging to the Rubrivivax/Leptothrix/Ideonella branch, and one Pseudonocardia sp. (IFP 2050). Quantification of these five strains and two other strains, Rhodococcus sp. IFP 2042 and Bradyrhizobium sp. IFP2049, which had been previously isolated from one of the enrichments was carried out on the different enrichments based on quantitative PCR with specific 16S rRNA gene primers and the results were consistent with the hypothesized role of Actinobacteria and Betaproteobacteria in the degradation of ETBE and the possible role of Bradyrhizobium strains in the degradation of TBA.

Ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE) biodegradation by a syntrophic association of Rhodococcus sp. IFP 2042 and Bradyrhizobium sp. IFP 2049 isolated from a polluted aquifer.

Ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE) enrichment was obtained by adding contaminated groundwater to a mineral medium containing ETBE as the sole carbon and energy source. ETBE was completely degraded to biomass and CO2 with a transient production of tert-butanol (TBA) and a final biomass yield of 0.37 ± 0.08 mg biomass (dry weight).mg(-1) ETBE. Two bacterial strains, IFP 2042 and IFP 2049, were isolated from the enrichment, and their 16S rRNA genes (rrs) were similar to Rhodococcus sp. (99 % similarity to Rhodococcus erythropolis) and Bradyrhizobium sp. (99 % similarity to Bradyrhizobium japonicum), respectively. Rhodococcus sp. IFP 2042 degraded ETBE to TBA, and Bradyrhizobium sp. IFP 2049 degraded TBA to biomass and CO2. A mixed culture of IFP 2042 and IFP 2049 degraded ETBE to CO2 with a biomass yield similar to the original ETBE enrichment (0.31 ± 0.02 mg biomass.mg(-1) ETBE). Among the genes previously described to be involved in ETBE, MTBE, and TBA degradation, only alkB was detected in Rhodococcus sp. IFP 2042 by PCR, and none were detected in Bradyrhizobium sp. IFP 2049.

Study of an aquifer contaminated by ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE): site characterization and on-site bioremediation.

Ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE) was detected at high concentration (300mgL(-1)) in the groundwater below a gas-station. No significant carbon neither hydrogen isotopic fractionation of ETBE was detected along the plume. ETBE and BTEX biodegradation capacities of the indigenous microflora Pz1-ETBE and of a culture (MC-IFP) composed of Rhodococcus wratislaviensis IFP 2016, Rhodococcus aetherivorans IFP 2017 and Aquincola tertiaricarbonis IFP 2003 showed that ETBE and BTEX degradation rates were in the same range (ETBE: 0.91 and 0.83 mg L(-1)h(-1) and BTEX: 0.64 and 0.82 mg L(-1)h(-1), respectively) but tert-butanol (TBA) accumulated transiently at a high level using Pz1-ETBE (74 mg L(-1)). An on-site pilot plant (2m(3)) filled with polluted groundwater and inoculated by MC-IFP, successfully degraded four successive additions of ETBE and gasoline. However, an insignificant ETBE isotopic fractionation was also accompanying this decrease which suggested the involvement of low fractionating-strains using EthB enzymes, but required of additional proofs. The ethB gene encoding a cytochrome P450 involved in ETBE biodegradation (present in R. aetherivorans IFP 2017) was monitored by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (q-PCR) on DNA extracted from water sampled in the pilot plant which yield up to 5×10(6) copies of ethB gene per L(-1).

Cytochromes P450-mediated degradation of fuel oxygenates by environmental isolates.

The degradation of fuel oxygenates [methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE) and tert-amyl methyl ether (TAME)] by Rhodococcus ruber IFP 2001, Rhodococcus zopfii IFP 2005 and Gordonia sp. IFP 2009 (formerly Mycobacterium sp.) isolated from different environments was compared. Strains IFP 2001, IFP 2005 and IFP 2009 grew on ETBE due in part to the activity of a cytochrome P450, CYP249. All of these strains were able to degrade ETBE to tert-butyl alcohol and are harboring the CYP249 cytochrome P450. They were also able to degrade MTBE and TAME, but ETBE was degraded in all cases most efficiently, with degradation rates measured after growth on ETBE of 2.1, 3.5 and 1.6 mmol ETBE g(-1) dry weight h(-1) for strains IFP 2001, IFP 2005 and IFP 2009, respectively. The phylogenetic relationships between the different ethR (encoding the regulator) and ethB (encoding the cytochrome P450) genes were determined and showed high identity between different ethB genes (>99%). Only ETBE was able to induce the expression of ethB in strains IFP 2001 and IFP 2005 as measured by reverse transcriptase quantitative PCR. Our results are a first indication of the possible role played by the ethB gene in the ecology of ETBE degradation.

Degradation of a mixture of hydrocarbons, gasoline, and diesel oil additives by Rhodococcus aetherivorans and Rhodococcus wratislaviensis.

Two strains, identified as Rhodococcus wratislaviensis IFP 2016 and Rhodococcus aetherivorans IFP 2017, were isolated from a microbial consortium that degraded 15 petroleum compounds or additives when provided in a mixture containing 16 compounds (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, m-xylene, p-xylene, o-xylene, octane, hexadecane, 2,2,4-trimethylpentane [isooctane], cyclohexane, cyclohexanol, naphthalene, methyl tert-butyl ether [MTBE], ethyl tert-butyl ether [ETBE], tert-butyl alcohol [TBA], and 2-ethylhexyl nitrate [2-EHN]). The strains had broad degradation capacities toward the compounds, including the more recalcitrant ones, MTBE, ETBE, isooctane, cyclohexane, and 2-EHN. R. wratislaviensis IFP 2016 degraded and mineralized to different extents 11 of the compounds when provided individually, sometimes requiring 2,2,4,4,6,8,8-heptamethylnonane (HMN) as a cosolvent. R. aetherivorans IFP 2017 degraded a reduced spectrum of substrates. The coculture of the two strains degraded completely 13 compounds, isooctane and 2-EHN were partially degraded (30% and 73%, respectively), and only TBA was not degraded. Significant MTBE and ETBE degradation rates, 14.3 and 116.1 mumol of ether degraded h(-1) g(-1) (dry weight), respectively, were measured for R. aetherivorans IFP 2017. The presence of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (BTEXs) had a detrimental effect on ETBE and MTBE biodegradation, whereas octane had a positive effect on the MTBE biodegradation by R. wratislaviensis IFP 2016. BTEXs had either beneficial or detrimental effects on their own degradation by R. wratislaviensis IFP 2016. Potential genes involved in hydrocarbon degradation in the two strains were identified and partially sequenced.

Use of Mycobacterium austroafricanum IFP 2012 in a MTBE-degrading bioreactor.

Mycobacterium austroafricanum IFP 2012 is able to slowly grow on methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), a fuel oxygenate widely used as a gasoline additive. The potential of M. austroafricanum IFP 2012 for aerobic MTBE degradation was investigated in the presence of a secondary carbon source, isopropanol. The strain was then tested for MTBE biodegradation at the laboratory-scale in a fixed-bed reactor using perlite as the matrix, and isopropanol was injected once a week to maintain M. austroafricanum IFP 2012 biomass inside the perlite bed. The biofilter was operated for 85 days at an influent flow rate of 20 ml/h by varying the MTBE concentration from 10 to 20 mg/l. The hydraulic retention time was fixed at 5 days. The removal of MTBE depended on the inlet MTBE concentration and a MTBE removal efficiency higher than 99% was obtained for MTBE concentrations up to 15 mg/l. A set of 16S rRNA gene primers specific for M. austroafricanum species was used to analyze the DNA extracted from the biofilter effluent in order to detect the presence of M. austroafricanum IFP 2012 and to estimate the effect of periodic injections of isopropanol on the release of the strain from the perlite bed. The results demonstrated that the injection of isopropanol served to maintain an active MTBE degrading biomass in the biofilter and that this system could be used to effectively treat MTBE contaminated groundwater.

Aquincola tertiaricarbonis gen. nov., sp. nov., a tertiary butyl moiety-degrading bacterium.

Strains L10(T), L108 and CIP I-2052 were originally obtained from methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE)-contaminated groundwater and from a wastewater treatment plant, respectively. All share the ability to grow on tert-butanol, an intermediate of MTBE degradation. Cells are strictly aerobic, motile by a polar flagellum and exhibit strong pili formation. Poly beta-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) granules are formed. The DNA G+C content is 69-70.5 mol% and the main ubiquinone is Q-8. The major cellular fatty acids are 16 : 1 cis-9 and 16 : 0 and the only hydroxy fatty acid is 10 : 0 3-OH. The major phospholipids are phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) 16 : 1/16 : 1 and phosphatidylglycerol 16 : 0/16 : 1. A significant amount of PE 17 : 0/16 : 1 is present. The 16S rRNA gene sequences of these strains are almost identical and form a separate line of descent in the Rubrivivax-Roseateles-Leptothrix-Ideonella-Aquabacterium branch of the Betaproteobacteria with 97 % similarity to 16S rRNA genes of the type strains of Rubrivivax gelatinosus, Leptothrix mobilis and Ideonella dechloratans. However, physiological properties, DNA-DNA relatedness values and the phospholipid and cellular fatty acid profiles distinguish the novel isolates from the three closely related genera. Therefore, it is concluded that strains L10(T), L108 and CIP I-2052 represent a new genus and novel species for which the name Aquincola tertiaricarbonis gen. nov., sp. nov., is proposed. The type strain is strain L10(T) (=DSM 18512(T)=CIP 109243(T)).

n-Alkane assimilation and tert-butyl alcohol (TBA) oxidation capacity in Mycobacterium austroafricanum strains.

Mycobacterium austroafricanum IFP 2012, which grows on methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) and on tert-butyl alcohol (TBA), the main intermediate of MTBE degradation, also grows on a broad range of n-alkanes (C2 to C16). A single alkB gene copy, encoding a non-heme alkane monooxygenase, was partially amplified from the genome of this bacterium. Its expression was induced after growth on n-propane, n-hexane, n-hexadecane and on TBA but not after growth on LB. The capacity of other fast-growing mycobacteria to grow on n-alkanes (C1 to C16) and to degrade TBA after growth on n-alkanes was compared to that of M. austroafricanum IFP 2012. We studied M. austroafricanum IFP 2012 and IFP 2015 able to grow on MTBE, M. austroafricanum IFP 2173 able to grow on isooctane, Mycobacterium sp. IFP 2009 able to grow on ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE), M. vaccae JOB5 (M. austroaafricanum ATCC 29678) able to degrade MTBE and TBA and M. smegmatis mc2 155 with no known degradation capacity towards fuel oxygenates. The M. austroafricanum strains grew on a broad range of n-alkanes and three were able to degrade TBA after growth on propane, hexane and hexadecane. An alkB gene was partially amplified from the genome of all mycobacteria and a sequence comparison demonstrated a close relationship among the M. austroafricanum strains. This is the first report suggesting the involvement of an alkane hydroxylase in TBA oxidation, a key step during MTBE metabolism.

Enzymes and genes involved in the aerobic biodegradation of methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE).

Fuel oxygenates, mainly methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) but also ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE), are added to gasoline in replacement of lead tetraethyl to enhance its octane index. Their addition also improves the combustion efficiency and therefore decreases the emission of pollutants (CO and hydrocarbons). On the other hand, MTBE, being highly soluble in water and recalcitrant to biodegradation, is a major pollutant of water in aquifers contaminated by MTBE-supplemented gasoline during accidental release. MTBE was shown to be degraded through cometabolic oxidation or to be used as a carbon and energy source by a few microorganisms. We have summarized the present state of knowledge about the microorganisms involved in MTBE degradation and the MTBE catabolic pathways. The role of the different enzymes is discussed as well as the rare and recent data concerning the genes encoding the enzymes involved in the MTBE pathway. The phylogeny of the microorganisms isolated for their capacity to grow on MTBE is also described.

Genes involved in the methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) metabolic pathway of Mycobacterium austroafricanum IFP 2012.

Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) is a persistent pollutant of surface and groundwater, and the reasons for its low biodegradability are poorly documented. Using one of the rare bacterial strains able to grow in the presence of MTBE, Mycobacterium austroafricanum IFP 2012, the protein profiles of crude extracts after growth in the presence of MTBE and glucose were compared by SDS-PAGE. Ten proteins with molecular masses of 67, 64, 63, 55, 50, 27, 24, 17, 14 and 11 kDa were induced after growth in the presence of MTBE. Partial amino acid sequences of N-terminal and internal peptide fragments of the 64 kDa protein were used to design degenerate oligonucleotide primers to amplify total DNA by PCR, yielding a DNA fragment that was used as a probe for cloning. A two-step cloning procedure was performed to obtain a 10 327 bp genomic DNA fragment containing seven ORFs, including a putative regulator, mpdR, and four genes, mpdC, orf1, mpdB and orf2, in the same cluster. The MpdB protein (64 kDa) was related to a flavoprotein of the glucose-methanol-choline oxidoreductase family, and the MpdC protein (55 kDa) showed a high similarity with NAD(P) aldehyde dehydrogenases. Heterologous expression of these gene products was performed in Mycobacterium smegmatis mc2 155. The recombinant strain was able to degrade an intermediate of MTBE biodegradation, 2-methyl 1,2-propanediol, to hydroxyisobutyric acid. This is believed to be the first report of the cloning and characterization of a cluster of genes specifically involved in the MTBE biodegradation pathway of M. austroafricanum IFP 2012.

Isolation and characterization of a new Mycobacterium austroafricanum strain, IFP 2015, growing on MTBE.

A new Mycobacterium austroafricanum strain, IFP 2015, growing on methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) as a sole carbon source was isolated from an MTBE-degrading microcosm inoculated with drain water of an MTBE-supplemented gasoline storage tank. M. austroafricanum IFP 2015 was able to grow on tert-butyl formate, tert-butyl alcohol (TBA) and alpha-hydroxyisobutyrate. 2-Methyl-1,2-propanediol was identified as the TBA oxidation product in M. austroafricanum IFP 2015 and in the previously isolated M. austroafricanum IFP 2012. M. austroafricanum IFP 2015 also degraded ethyl tert-butyl ether more rapidly than M. austroafricanum IFP 2012. Specific primers designed to monitor the presence of M. austroafricanum strains could be used as molecular tools to detect similar strains in MTBE-contaminated environment.