Gene disruption of Mfsd8 in mice provides the first animal model for CLN7 disease.

Mutations in the major facilitator superfamily domain containing 8 (MFSD8) gene coding for the lysosomal CLN7 membrane protein result in CLN7 disease, a lysosomal storage disease of childhood. CLN7 disease belongs to a group of inherited disorders, called neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCL), which are characterized by the accumulation of autofluorescent ceroid lipopigments, neuroinflammation, photoreceptor- and neurodegeneration. We have disrupted the Mfsd8 gene by insertion of a lacZ gene-trap cassette between exons 1 and 2 in mice and have analyzed the impact of Cln7 depletion on neuronal and visceral tissues. Analysis of lacZ reporter gene activity in heterozygous Mfsd8((wt/tm1a)) mice showed strong Mfsd8 mRNA expression in the cerebral cortex, in the hippocampus and in the kidney. Homozygous Mfsd8((tm1a/tm1a)) mice were viable and fertile and resembled biochemically the NCL-phenotype of human CLN7 patients including the accumulation of autofluorescent material in the brain and peripheral tissues and of subunit c of mitochondrial ATP synthase in the cerebellum and nuclei of distinct brain regions, and the degeneration of photoreceptor cells in the retina. Lysosomal storage was found in large neurons of the medulla, the hippocampus and in Purkinje cells of the cerebellum in mutant mice. The ultrastructure of the storage material revealed dense lamellar bodies with irregular forms within cerebellar and hippocampal neurons. In the brain loss of Cln7 was accompanied by mild reactive microgliosis and subtle astrogliosis by 10months of age, respectively. In summary we have generated a mouse model which is partly valuable as some but not all neuropathological features of human CLN7 disease are recapitulated thus representing an animal model to study CLN7-specific disease mechanisms.

High expression of disease-related Cln6 in the cerebral cortex, purkinje cells, dentate gyrus, and hippocampal ca1 neurons.

Mutations in the CLN6 gene cause a variant form of late infantile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis, a relentless neurodegenerative disease that is inherited as an autosomal recessive trait in humans and in the naturally occurring nclf mouse strain. The CLN6 protein is localized in the endoplasmic reticulum, but it has an unknown function. To develop a molecular understanding of neurodegeneration induced by mutations in CLN6, we examined the spatial and temporal distribution of Cln6 mRNA expression in murine brain. By using Northern blot and tissue qPCR array techniques, a single Cln6 transcript was detected throughout the adult brain, with greatest expression in the cerebellum and hypothalamus. Real-time qPCR showed 2.4-4-fold increases in Cln6 mRNA levels in the cortex and cerebellum during the first 28 days of life, with less prominent enhancement of expression in the hippocampus. In situ hybridization analyses demonstrated Cln6 expression in brainstem, dentate gyrus, and hippocampal neurons of newborn P0 mice. From P14 onward, Cln6 expression is widely distributed throughout the brain and is most prominent in cells of cortical layers II-VI, the Purkinje cell layer, dentate gyrus, and hippocampal CA1 region of adult mice. In different regions of the brain in P0 and P28 nclf mice, the Cln6 mRNA abundance was reduced by 30-40% compared with control mice. These findings implicate Cln6 in the survival and maturation of specific neuronal populations during development and make it possible to compare regional Cln6 expression with the distribution of subsequent pathology.

Makorin ring zinc finger protein 1 (MKRN1), a novel poly(A)-binding protein-interacting protein, stimulates translation in nerve cells.

The poly(A)-binding protein (PABP), a key component of different ribonucleoprotein complexes, plays a crucial role in the control of mRNA translation rates, stability, and subcellular targeting. In this study we identify RING zinc finger protein Makorin 1 (MKRN1), a bona fide RNA-binding protein, as a binding partner of PABP that interacts with PABP in an RNA-independent manner. In rat brain, a so far uncharacterized short MKRN1 isoform, MKRN1-short, predominates and is detected in forebrain nerve cells. In neuronal dendrites, MKRN1-short co-localizes with PABP in granule-like structures, which are morphological correlates of sites of mRNA metabolism. Moreover, in primary rat neurons MKRN1-short associates with dendritically localized mRNAs. When tethered to a reporter mRNA, MKRN1-short significantly enhances reporter protein synthesis. Furthermore, after induction of synaptic plasticity via electrical stimulation of the perforant path in vivo, MKRN1-short specifically accumulates in the activated dendritic lamina, the middle molecular layer of the hippocampal dentate gyrus. Collectively, these data indicate that in mammalian neurons MKRN1-short interacts with PABP to locally control the translation of dendritic mRNAs at synapses.

Autosomal-recessive posterior microphthalmos is caused by mutations in PRSS56, a gene encoding a trypsin-like serine protease.

Posterior microphthalmos (MCOP) is a rare isolated developmental anomaly of the eye characterized by extreme hyperopia due to short axial length. The population of the Faroe Islands shows a high prevalence of an autosomal-recessive form (arMCOP) of the disease. Based on published linkage data, we refined the position of the disease locus (MCOP6) in an interval of 250 kb in chromosome 2q37.1 in two large Faroese families. We detected three different mutations in PRSS56. Patients of the Faroese families were either homozygous for c.926G>C (p.Trp309Ser) or compound heterozygous for c.926G>C and c.526C>G (p.Arg176Gly), whereas a homozygous 1 bp duplication (c.1066dupC) was identified in five patients with arMCOP from a consanguineous Tunisian family. In one patient with MCOP from the Faroe Islands and in another one from Turkey, no PRSS56 mutation was detected, suggesting nonallelic heterogeneity of the trait. Using RT-PCR, PRSS56 transcripts were detected in samples derived from the human adult retina, cornea, sclera, and optic nerve. The expression of the mouse ortholog could be first detected in the eye at E17 and was maintained into adulthood. The predicted PRSS56 protein is a 603 amino acid long secreted trypsin-like serine peptidase. The c.1066dupC is likely to result in a functional null allele, whereas the two point mutations predict the replacement of evolutionary conserved and functionally important residues. Molecular modeling of the p.Trp309Ser mutant suggests that both the affinity and reactivity of the enzyme toward in vivo protein substrates are likely to be substantially reduced.

CCR6 recruits regulatory T cells and Th17 cells to the kidney in glomerulonephritis.

T cells recruited to the kidney contribute to tissue damage in crescentic and proliferative glomerulonephritides. Chemokines and their receptors regulate T cell trafficking, but the expression profile and functional importance of chemokine receptors for renal CD4+ T cell subsets are incompletely understood. In this study, we observed that renal FoxP3+CD4+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) and IL-17-producing CD4+ T (Th17) cells express the chemokine receptor CCR6, whereas IFNgamma-producing Th1 cells are CCR6-. Induction of experimental glomerulonephritis (nephrotoxic nephritis) in mice resulted in upregulation of the only CCR6 ligand, CCL20, followed by T cell recruitment, renal tissue injury, albuminuria, and loss of renal function. CCR6 deficiency aggravated renal injury and increased mortality (from uremia) among nephritic mice. Compared with wild-type (WT) mice, CCR6 deficiency reduced infiltration of Tregs and Th17 cells but did not affect recruitment of Th1 cells in the setting of glomerulonephritis. Adoptive transfer of WT but not CCR6-deficient Tregs attenuated morphologic and functional renal injury in nephritic mice. Furthermore, reconstitution with WT Tregs protected CCR6-/- mice from aggravated nephritis. Taken together, these data suggest that CCR6 mediates renal recruitment of both Tregs and Th17 cells and that the reduction of anti-inflammatory Tregs in the presence of a fully functional Th1 response aggravates experimental glomerulonephritis.

The ataxia (axJ) mutation causes abnormal GABAA receptor turnover in mice.

Ataxia represents a pathological coordination failure that often involves functional disturbances in cerebellar circuits. Purkinje cells (PCs) characterize the only output neurons of the cerebellar cortex and critically participate in regulating motor coordination. Although different genetic mutations are known that cause ataxia, little is known about the underlying cellular mechanisms. Here we show that a mutated ax(J) gene locus, encoding the ubiquitin-specific protease 14 (Usp14), negatively influences synaptic receptor turnover. Ax(J) mouse mutants, characterized by cerebellar ataxia, display both increased GABA(A) receptor (GABA(A)R) levels at PC surface membranes accompanied by enlarged IPSCs. Accordingly, we identify physical interaction of Usp14 and the GABA(A)R alpha1 subunit. Although other currently unknown changes might be involved, our data show that ubiquitin-dependent GABA(A)R turnover at cerebellar synapses contributes to ax(J)-mediated behavioural impairment.

CXCR3 mediates renal Th1 and Th17 immune response in murine lupus nephritis.

Infiltration of T cells into the kidney is a typical feature of human and experimental lupus nephritis that contributes to renal tissue injury. The chemokine receptor CXCR3 is highly expressed on Th1 cells and is supposed to be crucial for their trafficking into inflamed tissues. In this study, we explored the functional role of CXCR3 using the MRL/MpJ-Fas(lpr) (MRL/lpr) mouse model of systemic lupus erythematosus that closely resembles the human disease. CXCR3(-/-) mice were generated and backcrossed into the MRL/lpr background. Analysis of 20-wk-old CXCR3(-/-) MRL/lpr mice showed amelioration of nephritis with reduced glomerular tissue damage and decreased albuminuria and T cell recruitment. Most importantly, not only the numbers of renal IFN-gamma-producing Th1 cells, but also of IL-17-producing Th17 cells were significantly reduced. Unlike in inflamed kidneys, there was no reduction in the numbers of IFN-gamma- or IL-17-producing T cells in spleens, lymph nodes, or the small intestine of MRL/lpr CXCR3(-/-) mice. This observation suggests impaired trafficking of effector T cells to injured target organs, rather than the inability of CXCR3(-/-) mice to mount efficient Th1 and Th17 immune responses. These findings show a crucial role for CXCR3 in the development of experimental lupus nephritis by directing pathogenic effector T cells into the kidney. For the first time, we demonstrate a beneficial effect of CXCR3 deficiency through attenuation of both the Th1 and the newly defined Th17 immune response. Our data therefore identify the chemokine receptor CXCR3 as a promising therapeutic target in lupus nephritis.

Angiotensin II type 2 receptor deficiency aggravates renal injury and reduces survival in chronic kidney disease in mice.

Angiotensin II (Ang II) activates at least two receptors, AT1 and AT2, with the majority of its effects-such as vasoconstriction, inflammation, and matrix deposition-mediated by the AT1 receptor. It is thought that the AT2 receptor counteracts these processes; however, recent studies have found proinflammatory and hypertrophic effects of this receptor subtype. To identify the physiological roles of the AT2 receptor in chronic kidney disease, we performed renal ablation in AT2 receptor knockout and wild-type mice. Renal injury caused a greater impairment of renal function, glomerular injury, albuminuria, and mortality in the knockout mice than in the wild-type mice. There was increased fibronectin expression and inflammation in the knockout mice, as shown by augmented monocyte/macrophage infiltration and higher chemokine monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) and RANTES expression in the remnant kidney. The higher mortality and renal morbidity of the knockout mice was not due to differences in systemic blood pressure, glomerular volume, AT1 receptor, renin, or endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression. Whether activation of the AT2 receptor will have therapeutic benefit in chronic kidney disease will require further study.

CCR5 deficiency aggravates crescentic glomerulonephritis in mice.

The chemokine receptor CCR5 is predominantly expressed on monocytes and Th1-polarized T cells, and plays an important role in T cell and monocyte recruitment in inflammatory diseases. To investigate the functional role of CCR5 in renal inflammation, we induced a T cell-dependent model of glomerulonephritis (nephrotoxic serum nephritis) in CCR5(-/-) mice. Induction of nephritis in wild-type mice resulted in up-regulation of renal mRNA expression of the three CCR5 chemokine ligands, CCL5 (15-fold), CCL3 (4.9-fold), and CCL4 (3.4-fold), in the autologous phase of the disease at day 10. The up-regulated chemokine expression was paralleled by infiltration of monocytes and T cells, followed by renal tissue injury, albuminuria, and loss of renal function. Nephritic CCR5(-/-) mice showed a 3- to 4-fold increased renal expression of CCL5 (61.6-fold vs controls) and CCL3 (14.1-fold vs controls), but not of CCL4, in comparison with nephritic wild-type mice, which was accompanied by augmented renal T cell and monocyte recruitment and increased lethality due to uremia. Furthermore, CCR5(-/-) mice showed an increased renal Th1 response, whereas their systemic humoral and cellular immune responses were unaltered. Because the CCR5 ligands CCL5 and CCL3 also act via CCR1, we investigated the effects of the pharmacological CCR1 antagonist BX471. CCR1 blockade in CCR5(-/-) mice significantly reduced renal chemokine expression, T cell infiltration, and glomerular crescent formation, indicating that increased renal leukocyte recruitment and consecutive tissue damage in nephritic CCR5(-/-) mice depended on functional CCR1. In conclusion, this study shows that CCR5 deficiency aggravates glomerulonephritis via enhanced CCL3/CCL5-CCR1-driven renal T cell recruitment.

Neuronal expression of muskelin in the rodent central nervous system.

BACKGROUND: The kelch repeat protein muskelin mediates cytoskeletal responses to the extracellular matrix protein thrombospondin 1, (TSP1), that is known to promote synaptogenesis in the central nervous system (CNS). Muskelin displays intracellular localization and affects cytoskeletal organization in adherent cells. Muskelin is expressed in adult brain and has been reported to bind the Cdk5 activator p39, which also facilitates the formation of functional synapses. Since little is known about muskelin in neuronal tissues, we here analysed the tissue distribution of muskelin in rodent brain and analysed its subcellular localization using cultured neurons from multiple life stages. RESULTS: Our data show that muskelin transcripts and polypeptides are expressed throughout the central nervous system with significantly high levels in hippocampus and cerebellum, a finding that resembles the tissue distribution of p39. At the subcellular level, muskelin is found in the soma, in neurite projections and the nucleus with a punctate distribution in both axons and dendrites. Immunostaining and synaptosome preparations identify partial localization of muskelin at synaptic sites. Differential centrifugation further reveals muskelin in membrane-enriched, rather than cytosolic fractions. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that muskelin represents a multifunctional protein associated with membranes and/or large protein complexes in most neurons of the central nervous system. These data are in conclusion with distinct roles of muskelin's functional interaction partners.

No effect of prolonged corticosterone over-exposure on NCAM, SGK1, and RGS4 mRNA expression in rat hippocampus.

Prolonged over-exposure of rats to corticosterone attenuates 5-HT(1A)-receptor-mediated responses in hippocampal CA1 cells through an unknown mechanism, not involving downregulation of 5-HT(1A) receptor expression. We here tested if corticosterone changes 5-HT(1A) receptor function indirectly, by altering hippocampal mRNA expression of NCAM, SGK1, or RGS4, which all modulate 5-HT(1A) receptor function. We found that the expression of none of these candidates was affected by corticosterone treatment.

Compartment-specific expression and function of the chemokine IP-10/CXCL10 in a model of renal endothelial microvascular injury.

The recruitment of inflammatory cells into renal tissue, mainly T cells and monocytes, is a typical feature of various renal diseases such as glomerulonephritis, thrombotic angiopathies, allograft rejection, and vasculitis. T cells predominantly infiltrate the tubulointerstitium, whereas monocytes are present in the tubulointerstitial and glomerular compartment. Because chemokines play a pivotal role in leukocyte trafficking under inflammatory conditions, this study investigated whether a differential expression of chemokines contributes to the precise coordination of leukocyte subtype trafficking in a rat model of renal microvascular endothelial injury. Renal microvascular endothelial injury was induced in rats by selective renal artery perfusion with an anti-endothelial antibody. Induction of the disease led to severe glomerular and tubulointerstitial endothelial injury with subsequent upregulation of chemokines followed by inflammatory cell recruitment. Among the analyzed chemokine mRNA, IP-10/CXCL10 (119-fold), acting via CXCR3 on activated T cells, and MCP-1/CCL2 (65-fold), acting via CCR2 on monocytes, were by far the most strongly upregulated chemokines. In situ hybridization revealed that IP-10/CXCL10 mRNA was selectively expressed by endothelial cells in the tubulointerstitial area, co-localizing with infiltrating T cells. Despite extensive damage of glomerular vasculature, no IP-10/CXCL10 expression by glomerular endothelial cells was detected. MCP-1/CCL2 mRNA in contrast was detectable in the glomerulus and the tubulointerstitium. Treatment with a neutralizing anti-IP-10/CXCL10 antibody significantly reduced the number of infiltrating tubulointerstitial T cells without affecting monocyte migration and led to an improved renal function. Our study demonstrates a role of IP-10/CXCL10 on T cell recruitment in a rat model of renal endothelial microvascular injury. Furthermore, a differential chemokine expression profile by endothelial cells in different renal compartments was found. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that functional heterogeneity of endothelial cells from different vascular sites exists and provide an insight into the molecular mechanisms that may mediate compartment-specific T cell and monocyte recruitment in inflammatory renal disease.

CXCR3 and CCR5 positive T-cell recruitment in acute human renal allograft rejection.

BACKGROUND: Experimental studies suggest that the infiltration of activated T cells into the allograft, the key event in the development of acute renal allograft rejection, depends on the expression of chemokines and their interaction with chemokine receptors expressed on T cells. METHODS: For a more detailed comprehension of the pathogenesis of T-cell recruitment in human acute rejection, the in situ expression of chemokines and chemokine receptors in allografts of 26 patients between day 3 and 9 after renal transplantation was examined in the present prospective study. RESULTS: Immunohistochemical staining showed a significantly increased number of CXCR3 (P<0.01) and CCR5 positive T cells (P<0.01) in the tubulointerstitium of patients with acute allograft rejection according to Banff grade Ia-IIb. Likewise the intrarenal RNA expression of the CXCR3 ligands IP-10 (5.2-fold) and I-TAC (7.2-fold) and the CCR5 ligand RANTES (5.7-fold), was significantly up-regulated in rejecting organs. In situ hybridization revealed that IP-10 but not I-TAC was predominantly expressed by infiltrating leukocytes in the tubulointerstitial area, co-localizing with CXCR3 positive T cells. To a lesser degree expression by tubular cells could be detected, providing a possible explanation for the increased urinary IP-10 excretion we found in patients with rejecting organs. CONCLUSIONS: These data from a prospective, biopsy-controlled study indicate that the local expression of IP-10 and RANTES leads to the directional movement of activated CXCR3 and CCR5 bearing T cells into the renal allograft and mediates acute rejection. Our data provide a rationale that blocking CXCR3 and CCR5 may offer a unique therapeutic approach to prevent episodes of acute rejection in the early phase after renal transplantation.

Tenascin-N: characterization of a novel member of the tenascin family that mediates neurite repulsion from hippocampal explants.

Tenascin-N, a novel member of the tenascin family, was identified and shown to encode characteristic structural motifs of a cysteine-rich stretch, 3.5 epidermal growth factor-like repeats, 12 fibronectin type III homologous domains, and a fibrinogen-like domain. The third fibronectin type III homologous domain is altered by RNA splicing. Characterization of the expression of tenascin-N by in situ hybridization analysis assigned transcripts to many types of neurons in the central nervous system, to the medullary region in the kidney, and to resident macrophages of the T-cell zone in the splenic white pulp. By immunohistochemistry, tenascin-N expression is detectable in all brain regions, with a characteristic staining pattern in the hippocampus demarcating the CA3 region. Recombinantly expressed protein fragments of the alternatively spliced isoforms were presented in choice assays on patterned substrates to neurites and migrating neurons from hippocampal CA3 region explant cultures. The smaller splice variant inhibited neurite outgrowth or cell migration, whereas the longer splice form did not inhibit these functions. These observations suggest that the novel tenascin family member mediates specific repulsive properties on neurites and neurons by generating splice isoforms.

Exercise increases mRNA levels for adhesion molecules N-CAM and L1 correlating with BDNF response.

In situ hybridization was used to evaluate whether long-term moderate locomotor exercise, which up-regulates BDNF and TrkB levels in the spinal gray matter of the adult rat, similarly influences the expression of the cell adhesion molecules N-CAM and L1. Exercise doubled the level of N-CAM mRNA hybridization signal in the lumbar spinal gray. The increase in L1 mRNA was less consistent. N-CAM mRNA levels slightly increased in the white matter. BDNF mRNA levels also increased in cells of the ventral horn and the white matter due to the exercise. These results suggest that exercise-induced rearrangements of the spinal network involve N-CAM, L1 and BDNF, crucial in different aspects of synaptic plasticity and synapse formation.

Activation of GABA(A) receptors by guanidinoacetate: a novel pathophysiological mechanism.

Guanidinoacetate methyltransferase (GAMT) deficiency is an autosomal recessively inherited disorder of creatine biosynthesis. The disease occurs in early life with developmental delay or arrest and several neurological symptoms, e.g., seizures and dyskinesia. Both the deficiency of high-energy phosphates in neurons and the neurotoxic action of the accumulated metabolite guanidinoacetate (GAA) are candidate mechanisms for the pathophysiology of this disease. To examine a potential role of GAA accumulation, we analyzed the electrophysiological responses of neurons induced by GAA application in primary culture and acute murine brain slices. GAA evoked picrotoxin- and bicuculline-sensitive GABA(A) receptor-mediated chloride currents with an EC(50) of 167 microM in cortical neurons. Pathophysiologically relevant GAA concentrations hyperpolarized globus pallidus neurons and reduced their spontaneous spike frequency with an EC(50) of 15.1 microM. Furthermore, GAA acted as a partial agonist at heterologously expressed GABA(A) but not GABA(B) receptors. The interaction of GAA with neuronal GABA(A) receptors represents a candidate mechanism explaining neurological dysfunction in GAMT deficiency.

Amyloid Deposits in Pituitaries and Pituitary Adenomas: Immunohistochemistry and In Situ Hybridization.

The patterns of deposition and immunoreactivity of interstitial amyloid were studied in 11 pituitary glands obtained at autopsy and 9 surgically resected pituitary adenomas using Congo red staining and a panel of antisera directed against 5 major amyloid fibril proteins and all pituitary hormones. The deposition pattern of amyloid in pituitary glands differed from that in adenomas but all amyloid deposits showed an immunostaining with anti-amyloid X-light chain. The remaining antisera were immunonegative. In situ hybridization using an oligodeoxyribonucleotide-probe complementary to the mRNA coding for the constant region of human X-light chain yielded no hybridization signals in the pituitaries or pituitary adenomas, excluding local synthesis and secretion of immunoglobulins. Since no case studied suffered from generalized AX-amyloidosis and adsorption of immunoglobulins to the unknown amyloid fribril protein of the pituitary seems to be unlikely, crossreaction of the polyclonal antisera with an undefined antigen is probable. The similar immunostaining properties of amyloid deposits in "normal" pituitaries and pituitary adenomas suggest they both originate from the same precursor protein.