To spread or not to spread? Assessing the suitability of sewage sludge and other biogenic wastes for agriculture reuse.

Sewage sludge (biosolids) management represents a worldwide issue. Due to its valuable properties, approximately one half of the EU production is recovered in agriculture. Nevertheless, growing attention is given to potential negative effects deriving from the presence of harmful pollutants. It is recognized that a (even very detailed) chemical characterization is not able to predict ecotoxicity of a mixture. However, this can be directly measured by bioassays. Actually, the choice of the most suitable tests is still under debate. This paper presents a multilevel characterization protocol of sewage sludge and other organic residues, based on bioassays and chemical-physical-microbiological analyses. The detailed description of the experimental procedure includes all the involved steps: the criteria for selecting the organic matrices to be tested and compared; the sample pre-treatment required before the analyses execution; the chemical, physical and microbiological characterisation; the bioassays, grouped in three classes (baseline toxicity; specific mode of action; reactive mode of action); data processing. The novelty of this paper lies in the integrated use of advanced tools, and is based on three pillars:•the direct ecosafety assessment of the matrices to be reused.•the adoption of innovative bioassays and analytical procedures.•the original criteria for data normalization and processing.

Allium cepa tests: A plant-based tool for the early evaluation of toxicity and genotoxicity of newly synthetized antifungal molecules.

Many fungal genera such as Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium and Alternaria are able to produce, among many other metabolites, the aflatoxins, a group of toxic and carcinogenic compounds. To reduce their formation, synthetic fungicides are used as an effective way of intervention. However, the extensive use of such molecules generates long-term residues into the food and the environment. The need of new antifungal molecules, with high specificity and low off-target toxicity is worth. The aim of this study was to evaluate: i) the toxicity and genotoxicity of newly synthesized molecules with a good anti-mycotoxic activity, and ii) the suitability of the Allium cepa multi-endpoint assay as an early screening method for chemicals. Eight compounds were tested for toxicity by using the A. cepa bulb root elongation test and for genotoxicity using the A. cepa bulb mitotic index, micronuclei and chromosome aberrations tests. Three molecules showed no toxicity, while two induced mild toxic effects in roots exposed to the highest dose (100 µM). A more pronounced toxic effect was caused by the other three compounds for which the EC50 was approximately 50 µM. Furthermore, all molecules showed a clear genotoxic activity, both in terms of chromosomal aberrations and micronuclei. Albeit the known good antifungal activity, the different molecules caused strong toxic and genotoxic effects. The results indicate the suitability of experiments with A. cepa as a research model for the evaluation of the toxic and genotoxic activities of new molecules in plants before they are released into the environment.

Evaluation of Toxicity and Genotoxicity of Concrete Cast with Steel Slags Using Higher Terrestrial Plants.

The potential impact of concrete mixtures containing steel slag (SS) as a partial replacement of natural aggregates (NA) on the terrestrial ecosystem was assessed using a battery of plant-based bioassays. Leaching tests were conducted on four concrete mixtures and one mixture containing only NA (reference concrete). Leachates were tested for phytotoxicity using seeds of Lepidium sativum, Cucumis sativus, and Allium cepa. Emerging seedlings of L. sativum and A. cepa were used to assess DNA damage (comet test). The genotoxicity of the leachates was also analyzed with bulbs of A. cepa using the comet and chromosome aberration tests. None of the samples caused phytotoxic effects. On the contrary, almost all the samples supported the seedlings; and two leachates, one from the SS-containing concrete and the other from the reference concrete, promoted the growth of C. sativus and A. cepa. The DNA damage of L. sativum and A. cepa seedlings was significantly increased only by the reference concrete sample. In contrast, the DNA damage in A. cepa bulbs was significantly enhanced by the reference concrete but also by that of a concrete sample with SS. Furthermore, all leachates caused an increase in chromosomal aberrations in A. cepa bulbs. Despite some genotoxic effects of the concrete on plant cells, the partial replacement of SS does not seem to make the concrete more hazardous than the reference concrete, suggesting the potential use of SS as a reliable recycled material. Environ Toxicol Chem 2023;42:2193-2200. © 2023 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

Ecotoxicity Evaluation of Industrial Waste and Construction Materials: Comparison Between Leachates from Granular Steel Slags and Steel Slags-Containing Concrete Through a Plant-Based Approach.

Steel slags, the main waste product from the steel industry, may have several reuse possibilities. Among others, building applications represent a crucial field. However, the potential impact of harmful substances on the environment should be assessed. The aim of this study was to assess the phytotoxicity of steel slags (SS) and concrete mixtures cast with a partial replacement of SS (CSS). Leaching tests were carried out on four SS and four CSS according to EN 12457-2 and UNI EN 15863, respectively. Each leachate was assayed using root elongation tests on 30 seeds of Allium cepa, Cucumis sativus, and Lepidium sativum, respectively, and on 12 bulbs of A. cepa. The latter also allowed the analysis of other macroscopic parameters of toxicity (turgidity, consistency, colour change and root tip shape) and the evaluation of the mitotic index on 20,000 root tip cells per sample. None of the samples induced phytotoxic effects on the organisms tested: all samples supported seedlings emergence, verified by root elongation comparable to, or even greater than, that of the negative controls, and did not affect cell division, as evidenced by mitotic index values. The absence of phytotoxicity demonstrated by the leachates allows SS and SS-derived concrete to be considered as reliable materials suitable for use in civil constructions or in other engineering applications, with economic and environmental advantages, such as the reduction of the final disposal in landfills as well as the consumption of natural resources.

A scoping review of recent advances in the application of comet assay to Allium cepa roots.

The comet assay is a sensitive method for the evaluation of DNA damages and DNA repair capacity at single-cell level. Allium cepa is a well-established plant model for toxicological studies. The aim of this scoping review was to investigate the recent application of the comet assay in Allium cepa root cells to assess the genotoxicity. To explore the literature a search was performed selecting articles published between January 2015 and February 2023 from Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus databases using the combined search terms "Comet assay" and "Allium cepa". All the original articles that applied the comet assay to Allium cepa root cells were included. Of the 334 records initially found, 79 articles were identified as meeting the inclusion criteria. Some studies reported results for two or more toxicants. In these cases, the data for each toxicant were treated separately. Thus, the number of analyzed toxicants (such as chemicals, new materials, and environmental matrices) was higher than the number of selected papers and reached 90. The current use of the Allium-comet assay seems to be directed towards two types of approach: the direct study of the genotoxicity of compounds, mainly biocides (20% of analyzed compounds) and nano- and microparticles (17%), and assessing a treatment's ability to reduce or eliminate genotoxicity of known genotoxicants (19%). Although the genotoxicity identified by the Allium-comet assay is only one piece of a larger puzzle, this method could be considered a useful tool for screening the genotoxic potential of compounds released into the environment.

Phytotoxicity and genotoxicity of agro-industrial digested sludge hydrochar: The role of heavy metals.

Hydrochar is a new carbonaceous product obtained via hydrothermal carbonization of wet biomass, such as sludges or digested sludges, which often have disposal problems, also due to the presence of contaminants such as heavy metals. The properties of the hydrochar led to an interest in using it as an amendment, but the agro-environmental properties must be considered for its safe use. Raw hydrochar produced by agro-industrial digestate and relative three acidic post-treated hydrochars (for heavy metals removal) have been assessed considering their effect on phytotoxicity, soil, plant growth, mutagenicity, and genotoxicity. The chemical characterization showed the effect of post-treatment on heavy metals contents reduction, except for Cu content (hydrochar, 650 mg/kg; post-treated hydrochars, 940 mg/kg, 287 mg/kg, and 420 mg/kg). The acidic post-treatment also reduces the phytotoxicity compared to raw hydrochar (the germination index at 16 % of hydrochar concentration was: hydrochar, 61.48 %; post-treated hydrochars, 82.27 %, 58.28 %, and 82.26 %), but the low pH and the impact on N-cycle probably have caused the detrimental effect on plant growth of post-treated hydrochar. No mutagenic activity was observed in bacteria using Ames test, while all the samples induced chromosomal aberrations in plant cells (Allium cepa test). The approach adopted, which considers phytotoxicity, plant growth-soil effects, and mutagenicity/genotoxicity bioassays has been proven effective for a proper evaluation of organic products derived from waste to promote a sustainable and circular recovery of materials.

Wastewater toxicity removal: Integrated chemical and effect-based monitoring of full-scale conventional activated sludge and membrane bioreactor plants.

The literature is currently lacking effect-based monitoring studies targeted at evaluating the performance of full-scale membrane bioreactor plants. In this research, a monitoring campaign was performed at a full-scale wastewater treatment facility with two parallel lines (traditional activated sludge and membrane bioreactor). Beside the standard parameters (COD, nitrogen, phosphorus, and metals), 6 polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, 29 insecticides, 2 herbicides, and 3 endocrine disrupting compounds were measured. A multi-tiered battery of bioassays complemented the investigation, targeting different toxic modes of action and employing various biological systems (uni/multicellular, prokaryotes/eukaryotes, trophic level occupation). A traffic light scoring approach was proposed to quickly visualize the impact of treatment on overall toxicity that occurred after the exposure to raw and concentrated wastewater. Analysis of the effluents of the CAS and MBR lines show very good performance of the two systems for removal of organic micropollutants and metals. The most noticeable differences between CAS and MBR occurred in the concentration of suspended solids; chemical analyses did not show major differences. On the other hand, bioassays demonstrated better performance for the MBR. Both treatment lines complied with the Italian law's "ecotoxicity standard for effluent discharge in surface water". Yet, residual biological activity was still detected, demonstrating the adequacy and sensitivity of the toxicological tools, which, by their inherent nature, allow the overall effects of complex mixtures to be taken into account.

Environmental Footprint of Wastewater Treatment: A Step Forward in the Use of Toxicological Tools.

The assessment of the actual impact of discharged wastewater on the whole ecosystem and, in turn, on human health requires the execution of bioassays. In effect, based on the chemical characterization alone, the synergistic/antagonistic effect of mixtures of pollutants is hardly estimable. The aim of this work was to evaluate the applicability of a battery of bioassays and to suggest a smart procedure for results representation. Two real wastewater treatment plants were submitted to analytical campaigns. Several baseline toxicity assays were conducted, together with tests for the determination of endocrine activity, genetic toxicity and carcinogenicity of wastewater. A "traffic light" model was adopted for an easy-to-understand visualization of the results. Although the legal prescriptions of chemical parameters are fully complied with, bioassays show that a certain biological activity still residues in the treated effluents. Moreover, influent and effluent responses are not always appreciably different. Some tests employing human cells were revealed to be only partially adequate for environmental applications. An interesting and helpful development of the present approach would consist in the estimation of biological equivalents of toxicity, as shown for the estrogenic compound 17-ß-estradiol.

Genotoxic Activity of Particulate Matter and In Vivo Tests in Children Exposed to Air Pollution.

The aim of this paper was to investigate the relationship between micronuclei and DNA damage in children's buccal mucosa cells and the genotoxicity and mutagenicity of the different sized fractions of particulate matter as well as the concentration of PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) and metals in particulate matter. Air particulate matter was collected by high volume samplers located near the schools attended by the children on the same days of biological samplings. The mutagenic activity was assessed in different cells in in vitro tests (Ames test on bacteria and comet test on leukocytes). Our study showed weak positive correlations between (a) the mutagenicity of the PM0.5 fraction and PAHs and (b) the micronuclei test of children's buccal cells and PAHs detected in PM0.5 and PM0.5-3 fractions. A positive correlation was also found between in vitro comet test on leukocytes and PAHs in the PM3-10 fraction. No correlation was observed for metal concentrations in each PM fraction.

The AFLATOX® Project: Approaching the Development of New Generation, Natural-Based Compounds for the Containment of the Mycotoxigenic Phytopathogen Aspergillus flavus and Aflatoxin Contamination.

The control of the fungal contamination on crops is considered a priority by the sanitary authorities of an increasing number of countries, and this is also due to the fact that the geographic areas interested in mycotoxin outbreaks are widening. Among the different pre- and post-harvest strategies that may be applied to prevent fungal and/or aflatoxin contamination, fungicides still play a prominent role; however, despite of countless efforts, to date the problem of food and feed contamination remains unsolved, since the essential factors that affect aflatoxins production are various and hardly to handle as a whole. In this scenario, the exploitation of bioactive natural sources to obtain new agents presenting novel mechanisms of action may represent a successful strategy to minimize, at the same time, aflatoxin contamination and the use of toxic pesticides. The Aflatox® Project was aimed at the development of new-generation inhibitors of aflatoxigenic Aspergillus spp. proliferation and toxin production, through the modification of naturally occurring molecules: a panel of 177 compounds, belonging to the thiosemicarbazones class, have been synthesized and screened for their antifungal and anti-aflatoxigenic potential. The most effective compounds, selected as the best candidates as aflatoxin containment agents, were also evaluated in terms of cytotoxicity, genotoxicity and epi-genotoxicity to exclude potential harmful effect on the human health, the plants on which fungi grow and the whole ecosystem.

The release of contaminants from steel slags and natural aggregates: Evaluation of toxicity and genotoxicity.

Steel slags (SS) are the major waste produced by iron and steel industry. Slags may be reused as recycled materials, instead of natural aggregates (NA), to reduce the final disposal in a landfill and the exploitation of raw materials. However, the reuse of SS may generate a potential release of toxic compounds for the environment and humans. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the toxicity and genotoxicity of SS, in comparison with NA, by using an integrated chemical-biological approach to enable their safe reuse in engineering applications. Leaching solutions from samples were obtained by using short-term leaching tests (CEN EN 12457-2, 2004) usually adopted for the evaluation of waste recovery and final disposal. Chemical analyses of leachates were performed according to the Italian legislation on waste recovery (Ministerial Decree 186/2006). The leaching solutions were assayed by using toxicity test on Daphnia magna. Moreover, mutagenicity/genotoxicity tests on Salmonella typhimurium, Allium cepa, and human leucocytes and fibroblasts were carried out. The releases of pollutants from all samples were within the limits of the Italian legislation for waste recovery. Despite the effects that SS and NA could have on different cells, in terms of toxicity and genotoxicity, globally, SS do not seem to be any more hazardous than NA. This ecotoxicological assessment, never studied before, is important for promoting further studies that may support the decision-making process regarding the use of such types of materials.

Comet Test in Saliva Leukocytes of Pre-School Children Exposed to Air Pollution in North Italy: The Respira Study.

Air pollution is a well-known problem for human health, especially for children living in highly polluted urban areas. This study aimed to assess the relationship between airborne pollutants concentration and biomarkers of DNA damage in the buccal mucosa cells of pre-school children. DNA damage was investigated with comet test in saliva leukocytes taken from sputum of 3- to 6-year-old children living in Brescia, Northern Italy, collected during two consecutive winter seasons (2012-2013). The daily levels of PM10, PM2.5, NO2, CO, SO2, benzene and O3 in urban air were collected for the whole period. A questionnaire filled in by the children's parents was used to evaluate indoor and outdoor exposure. DNA damage in saliva leukocytes was evaluated in 152 children and the means of tail intensity and visual score as DNA damage were 6.2 ± 4.3 and 182.1 ± 30.9, respectively. No demographic and indoor or outdoor exposure variable was associated with the two measures of DNA damage. No significant association between air pollution and DNA damage in children's buccal leukocytes was found. In this study, the comet assay does not appear to be a valuable biomarker to detect DNA damage in children exposed to high levels of air pollutants, such as PM10, PM2.5 and NO2.

Genotoxicity of source, treated and distributed water from four drinking water treatment plants supplied by surface water in Sardinia, Italy.

High levels of disinfection by-products (DBPs) are constantly found in drinking water distributed in Sardinia, an Italian island with a tourist vocation and critical issues related to the drinking water supply. To reduce the concentration of trihalomethanes the disinfectant in use was changed - chlorine dioxide was adopted instead of hypochlorite. However, this caused the appearance of other DBPs (e.g., chlorites) in water distributed to the population. Thus, the use of monochloramine as a secondary disinfectant (associated with chlorine dioxide as the primary disinfectant) was evaluated in four drinking water treatment plants supplied by artificial basins located in the central-northern part of Sardinia. Raw, disinfected and distributed waters were studied for genotoxicity using a battery of in vitro tests on different cells (bacteria, plant and mammalian cells) to detect different genetic endpoints (i.e., point and chromosome mutations and DNA damage). Moreover, a chemical and microbiological characterisation of water samples was performed. All samples of water distributed to the people showed mutagenic or genotoxic effects in different cells/organisms. In particular, chromosome aberrations in plant cells and DNA damage in human cells were observed. In this study, the use of chloramines associated with other disinfectants did not eliminate the mutagenicity present in the raw water and when the raw water was not mutagenic it introduced mutagenic/genotoxic substances. A careful management of drinking water is needed to reduce health hazards associated with the mutagenicity of drinking water.

Antiaflatoxigenic Thiosemicarbazones as Crop-Protective Agents: A Cytotoxic and Genotoxic Study.

Aflatoxins are secondary fungal metabolites that can contaminate feed and food. They are a cause of growing concern worldwide, because they are potent carcinogenic agents. Thiosemicarbazones are molecules that possess interesting antiaflatoxigenic properties, but in order to use them as crop-protective agents, their cytotoxic and genotoxic profiles must first be assessed. In this paper, a group of thiosemicarbazones and a copper complex are reported as compounds able to antagonize aflatoxin biosynthesis, fungal growth, and sclerotia biogenesis in Aspergillus flavus. The two most interesting thiosemicarbazones found were noncytotoxic on several cell lines (CRL1790, Hs27, HFL1, and U937), and therefore, they were submitted to additional analysis of mutagenicity and genotoxicity on bacteria, plants, and human cells. No mutagenic activity was observed in bacteria, whereas genotoxic activity was revealed by the Alkaline Comet Assay on U937 cells and by the test of chromosomal aberrations in Allium cepa.

"Risk is in the air": Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, metals and mutagenicity of atmospheric particulate matter in a town of Northern Italy (Respira study).

Air pollution has well-known harmful effects on human beings, causing both acute and chronic diseases. Some data suggest that genetic damage occurring early in life may influence the risk of having cancer and other chronic diseases in adulthood. Therefore, there is a growing interest in studying the genotoxic activity of air pollution, and especially particulate matter. The aim of this study was to analyze airborne particulate matter (PM10) collected in an industrialized town of Northern Italy. PM10 was sampled in six areas of the town, divided in three distinct dimensional classes (<0.5 µm; 0.5-3 µm and 3-10 µm), and analyzed for the quantification of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons and metals contents. A model-based approach using diagnostic ratios and toxic equivalency factor was also followed. Concurrently, biological assays were performed for the assessment of mutagenicity and genotoxicity in bacteria, human and plant cells. Mutagenicity was observed in bacteria and human cells, with a clear dose-response relationship, induced above all by the finest PM samples (PM0.5 and PM0.5-3), which contained the largest number of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. DNA damage, such as chromosomal aberrations and micronuclei, was also found in Allium cepa root cells, but without a clear relationship with the tested doses. The in-vitro models utilized showed to be good indicators of air quality for mutagenicity. Chemical analyses evidenced high content of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, metals and semi-metals in PM extracts. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, metals and mutagenicity can be ascribed mainly to vehicular traffic (in terms of both exhausted gases emission and mechanical losses), which represents a constant and ubiquitous source of human exposure, and to steel working, carried out within the urban area.

Mutagenic and genotoxic effects induced by PM0.5 of different Italian towns in human cells and bacteria: The MAPEC_LIFE study.

Particulate matter (PM) is considered an atmospheric pollutant that mostly affects human health. The finest fractions of PM (PM2.5 or less) play a major role in causing chronic diseases. The aim of this study was to investigate the genotoxic effects of PM0.5 collected in five Italian towns using different bioassays. The role of chemical composition on the genotoxicity induced was also evaluated. The present study was included in the multicentre MAPEC_LIFE project, which aimed to evaluate the associations between air pollution exposure and early biological effects in Italian children. PM10 samples were collected in 2 seasons (winter and spring) using a high-volume multistage cascade impactor. The results showed that PM0.5 represents a very high proportion of PM10 (range 10-63%). PM0.5 organic extracts were chemically analysed (PAHs, nitro-PAHs) and tested by the comet assay (A549 and BEAS-2B cells), MN test (A549 cells) and Ames test on Salmonella strains (TA100, TA98, TA98NR and YG1021). The highest concentrations of PAHs and nitro-PAHs in PM0.5 were observed in the Torino, Brescia and Pisa samples in winter. The Ames test showed low mutagenic activity. The highest net revertants/m3 were observed in the Torino and Brescia samples (winter), and the mutagenic effect was associated with PM0.5 (p < 0.01), PAH and nitro-PAH (p < 0.05) concentrations. The YG1021 strain showed the highest sensitivity to PM0.5 samples. No genotoxic effect of PM0.5 extracts was observed using A549 cells except for some samples in winter (comet assay), while BEAS-2B cells showed light DNA damage in the Torino, Brescia and Pisa samples in winter, highlighting the higher sensitivity of BEAS-2B cells, which was consistent with the Ames test (p < 0.01). The results obtained showed that it is important to further investigate the finest fractions of PM, which represent a relevant percentage of PM10, taking into account the chemical composition and the biological effects induced.

Health Risk Associated with Exposure to PM10 and Benzene in Three Italian Towns.

Air pollution in urban areas is a major concern as it negatively affects the health of a large number of people. The purpose of this study was to assess the inhalation health risk for exposure to PM10 and benzene of the populations living in three Italian cities. Data regarding PM10 and benzene daily measured by "traffic" stations and "background" stations in Torino, Perugia, and Lecce during 2014 and 2015 were compared to the limits indicated in the Directive 2008/50/EC. In addition, an inhalation risk analysis for exposure to benzene was performed for adults and children by applying the standard United States Environmental Protection Agency's (USEPA) methodology. The levels of PM10 detected in Torino exceeded the legal limits in both years with an increased mean concentration >10 µg/m³ comparing with background station. Benzene concentrations never exceeded the legislative target value. The increased cancer risk (ICR) for children exposed to benzene was greater than 1 × 10-6 only in the city of Torino, while for adults, the ICR was higher than 1 × 10-6 in all the cities. The results suggest the need for emission reduction policies to preserve human health from continuous and long exposure to air pollutants. A revision of legal limits would also be recommended.

Thiosemicarbazone scaffold for the design of antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic agents: evaluation of ligands and related copper complexes.

The issue of food contamination by aflatoxins presently constitutes a social emergency, since they represent a severe risk for human and animal health. On the other hand, the use of pesticides has to be contained, since this generates long term residues in food and in the environment. Here we present the synthesis of a series of chelating ligands based on the thiosemicarbazone scaffold, to be evaluated for their antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic effects. Starting from molecules of natural origin of known antifungal properties, we introduced the thio- group and then the corresponding copper complexes were synthesised. Some molecules highlighted aflatoxin inhibition in the range 67-92% at 100 µM. The most active compounds were evaluated for their cytotoxic effects on human cells. While all the copper complexes showed high cytotoxicity in the micromolar range, one of the ligand has no effect on cell proliferation. This hit was chosen for further analysis of mutagenicity and genotoxicity on bacteria, plants and human cells. Analysis of the data underlined the importance of the safety profile evaluation for hit compounds to be developed as crop-protective agents and at the same time that the thiosemicarbazone scaffold represents a good starting point for the development of aflatoxigenic inhibitors.

A battery of assays as an integrated approach to evaluate fungal and mycotoxin inhibition properties and cytotoxic/genotoxic side-effects for the prioritization in the screening of thiosemicarbazone derivatives.

Aflatoxins represent a serious problem for a food economy based on cereal cultivations used to fodder animal and for human nutrition. The aims of our work are two-fold: first, to perform an evaluation of the activity of newly synthesized thiosemicarbazone compounds as antifungal and anti-mycotoxin agents and, second, to conduct studies on the toxic and genotoxic hazard potentials with a battery of tests with different endpoints. In this paper we report an initial study on two molecules: S-4-isopropenylcyclohexen-1-carbaldehydethiosemicarbazone and its metal complex, bis(S-4-isopropenylcyclohexen-1-carbaldehydethiosemicarbazonato)nickel (II). The outcome of the assays on fungi growth and aflatoxin production inhibition show that both molecules possess good antifungal activities, without inducing mutagenic effects on bacteria. From the assays to ascertain that the compounds have no adverse effects on human cells, we have found that they are cytotoxic and, in the case of the nickel compound, they also present genotoxic effects.

Lifestyles and socio-cultural factors among children aged 6-8 years from five Italian towns: the MAPEC_LIFE study cohort.

BACKGROUND: Lifestyles profoundly determine the quality of an individual's health and life since his childhood. Many diseases in adulthood are avoidable if health-risk behaviors are identified and improved at an early stage of life. The aim of the present research was to characterize a cohort of children aged 6-8 years selected in order to perform an epidemiological molecular study (the MAPEC_LIFE study), investigate lifestyles of the children that could have effect on their health status, and assess possible association between lifestyles and socio-cultural factors. METHODS: A questionnaire composed of 148 questions was administered in two different seasons to parents of children attending 18 primary schools in five Italian cities (Torino, Brescia, Pisa, Perugia and Lecce) to obtain information regarding the criteria for exclusion from the study, demographic, anthropometric and health information on the children, as well as some aspects on their lifestyles and parental characteristics. The results were analyzed in order to assess the frequency of specific conditions among the different seasons and cities and the association between lifestyles and socio-economic factors. RESULTS: The final cohort was composed of 1,164 children (50.9 boys, 95.4% born in Italy). Frequency of some factors appeared different in terms of the survey season (physical activity in the open air, the ways of cooking certain foods) and among the various cities (parents' level of education and rate of employment, sport, traffic near the home, type of heating, exposure to passive smoking, ways of cooking certain foods). Exposure to passive smoking and cooking fumes, obesity, residence in areas with heavy traffic, frequency of outdoor play and consumption of barbecued and fried foods were higher among children living in families with low educational and/or occupational level while children doing sports and consuming toasted bread were more frequent in families with high socio-economic level. CONCLUSIONS: The socio-economic level seems to affect the lifestyles of children enrolled in the study including those that could cause health effects. Many factors are linked to the geographical area and may depend on environmental, cultural and social aspects of the city of residence.