Persistence and intra-host genetic evolution of Zika virus infection in symptomatic adults: a special view in the male reproductive system

We followed the presence of Zika virus (ZIKV) in four healthy adults (two men and two women), for periods ranging from 78 to 298 days post symptom onset. The patients were evaluated regarding the presence of the virus in different body fluids (blood, saliva, urine and semen), development of immune responses (including antibodies, cytokines and chemokines), and virus genetic variation within samples collected from semen and urine during the infection course. The analysis was focused primarily on the two male patients who shed the virus for up to 158 days after the initial symptoms. ZIKV particles were detected in the spermatozoa cytoplasm and flagella, in immature sperm cells and could also be isolated from semen in cell culture, confirming that the virus is able to preserve integrity and infectivity during replication in the male reproductive system (MRS). Despite the damage caused by ZIKV infection within the MRS, our data showed that ZIKV infection did not result in infertility at least in one of the male patients. This patient was able to conceive a child after the infection. We also detected alterations in the male genital cytokine milieu, which could play an important role in the replication and transmission of the virus which could considerably increase the risk of ZIKV sexual spread. In addition, full genome ZIKV sequences were obtained from several samples (mainly semen), which allowed us to monitor the evolution of the virus within a patient during the infection course. We observed genetic changes over time in consensus sequences and lower frequency intra-host single nucleotide variants (iSNV), that suggested independent compartmentalization of ZIKV populations in the reproductive and urinary systems. Altogether, the present observations confirm the risks associated with the long-term replication and shedding of ZIKV in the MRS and help to elucidate patterns of intra-host genetic evolution during long term replication of the virus.

Persistence and intra-host genetic evolution of Zika virus infection in symptomatic adults: a special view in the male reproductive system

We followed the presence of Zika virus (ZIKV) in four healthy adults (two men and two women), for periods ranging from 78 to 298 days post symptom onset. The patients were evaluated regarding the presence of the virus in different body fluids (blood, saliva, urine and semen), development of immune responses (including antibodies, cytokines and chemokines), and virus genetic variation within samples collected from semen and urine during the infection course. The analysis was focused primarily on the two male patients who shed the virus for up to 158 days after the initial symptoms. ZIKV particles were detected in the spermatozoa cytoplasm and flagella, in immature sperm cells and could also be isolated from semen in cell culture, confirming that the virus is able to preserve integrity and infectivity during replication in the male reproductive system (MRS). Despite the damage caused by ZIKV infection within the MRS, our data showed that ZIKV infection did not result in infertility at least in one of the male patients. This patient was able to conceive a child after the infection. We also detected alterations in the male genital cytokine milieu, which could play an important role in the replication and transmission of the virus which could considerably increase the risk of ZIKV sexual spread. In addition, full genome ZIKV sequences were obtained from several samples (mainly semen), which allowed us to monitor the evolution of the virus within a patient during the infection course. We observed genetic changes over time in consensus sequences and lower frequency intra-host single nucleotide variants (iSNV), that suggested independent compartmentalization of ZIKV populations in the reproductive and urinary systems. Altogether, the present observations confirm the risks associated with the long-term replication and shedding of ZIKV in the MRS and help to elucidate patterns of intra-host genetic evolution during long term replication of the virus.

A Therapeutic Her2/neu Vaccine Targeting Dendritic Cells Preferentially Inhibits the Growth of Low Her2/neu-Expressing Tumor in HLA-A2 Transgenic Mice.

PURPOSE: E75, a peptide derived from the Her2/neu protein, is the most clinically advanced vaccine approach against breast cancer. In this study, we aimed to optimize the E75 vaccine using a delivery vector targeting dendritic cells, the B-subunit of Shiga toxin (STxB), and to assess the role of various parameters (Her2/neu expression, combination with trastuzumab) in the efficacy of this cancer vaccine in a relevant preclinical model. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: We compared the differential ability of the free E75 peptide or the STxB-E75 vaccine to elicit CD8(+) T cells, and the impact of the vaccine on murine HLA-A2 tumors expressing low or high levels of Her2/neu. RESULTS: STxB-E75 synergized with granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factors and CpG and proved to be more efficient than the free E75 peptide in the induction of multifunctional and high-avidity E75-specific anti-CD8(+) T cells resulting in a potent tumor protection in HLA-A2 transgenic mice. High expression of HER2/neu inhibited the expression of HLA-class I molecules, leading to a poor recognition of human or murine tumors by E75-specific cytotoxic CD8(+) T cells. In line with these results, STxB-E75 preferentially inhibited the growth of HLA-A2 tumors expressing low levels of Her2/neu. Coadministration of anti-Her2/neu mAb potentiated this effect. CONCLUSIONS: STxB-E75 vaccine is a potent candidate to be tested in patients with low Her2/neu-expressing tumors. It could also be indicated in patients expressing high levels of Her2/neu and low intratumoral T-cell infiltration to boost the recruitment of T cells-a key parameter in the efficacy of anti-Her2/neu mAb therapy. Clin Cancer Res; 22(16); 4133-44. ©2016 AACR.

Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli

ABSTRACT Most Escherichia coli strains live harmlessly in the intestines and rarely cause disease in healthy individuals. Nonetheless, a number of pathogenic strains can cause diarrhea or extraintestinal diseases both in healthy and immunocompromised individuals. Diarrheal illnesses are a severe public health problem and a major cause of morbidity and mortality in infants and young children, especially in developing countries. E. coli strains that cause diarrhea have evolved by acquiring, through horizontal gene transfer, a particular set of characteristics that have successfully persisted in the host. According to the group of virulence determinants acquired, specific combinations were formed determining the currently known E. coli pathotypes, which are collectively known as diarrheagenic E. coli. In this review, we have gathered information on current definitions, serotypes, lineages, virulence mechanisms, epidemiology, and diagnosis of the major diarrheagenic E. coli pathotypes.

Mucosal vaccines: novel strategies and applications for the control of pathogens and tumors at mucosal sites.

The mucosal immune system displays several adaptations reflecting the exposure to the external environment. The efficient induction of mucosal immune responses also requires specific approaches, such as the use of appropriate administration routes and specific adjuvants and/or delivery systems. In contrast to vaccines delivered via parenteral routes, experimental, and clinical evidences demonstrated that mucosal vaccines can efficiently induce local immune responses to pathogens or tumors located at mucosal sites as well as systemic response. At least in part, such features can be explained by the compartmentalization of mucosal B and T cell populations that play important roles in the modulation of local immune responses. In the present review, we discuss molecular and cellular features of the mucosal immune system as well as novel immunization approaches that may lead to the development of innovative and efficient vaccines targeting pathogens and tumors at different mucosal sites.

Distinctive Immunomodulatory and Inflammatory Properties of the Escherichia coli Type II Heat-Labile Enterotoxin LT-IIa and Its B Pentamer following Intradermal Administration

The type I and type II heat-labile enterotoxins (LT-I and LT-II) are strong mucosal adjuvants when they are coadministered with soluble antigens. Nonetheless, data on the parenteral adjuvant activities of LT-II are still limited. Particularly, no previous study has evaluated the adjuvant effects and induced inflammatory reactions of LT-II holotoxins or their B pentameric subunits after delivery via the intradermal (i.d.) route to mice. In the present report, the adjuvant and local skin inflammatory effects of LT-IIa and its B subunit pentamer (LT-IIaB5) were determined. When coadministered with ovalbumin (OVA), LT-IIa and, to a lesser extent, LT-IIaB5 exhibited serum IgG adjuvant effects. In addition, LT-IIa but not LT-IIaB5 induced T cell-specific anti-OVA responses, particularly in respect to induction of antigen-specific cytotoxic CD8+ T cell responses. LT-IIa and LT-IIaB5 induced differential tissue permeability and local inflammatory reactions after i.d. injection. Of particular interest was the reduced or complete lack of local reactions, such as edema and tissue induration, in mice i.d. inoculated with LT-IIa and LT-IIaB5, respectively, compared with mice immunized with LT-I. In conclusion, the present results show that LT-IIa and, to a lesser extent, LT-IIaB5 exert adjuvant effects when they are delivered via the i.d. route. In addition, the low inflammatory effects of LT-IIa and LT-IIaB5 in comparison to those of LT-I support the usefulness of LT-IIa and LT-IIaB5 as parenterally delivered vaccine adjuvants.

Functional diversity of heat-labile toxins (LT) produced by enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli: Differential enzymatic and immunological activities of LT1 (hLT) and LT4 (pLT)

Heat-labile toxins (LTs) have ADP-ribosylation activity and induce the secretory diarrhea caused by enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) strains in different mammalian hosts. LTs also act as adjuvants following delivery via mucosal, parenteral, or transcutaneous routes. Previously we have shown that LT produced by human-derived ETEC strains encompass a group of 16 polymorphic variants, including the reference toxin (LT1 or hLT) produced by the H10407 strain and one variant that is found mainly among bacterial strains isolated from pigs (LT4 or pLT). Herein, we show that LT4 (with six polymorphic sites in the A (K4R, K213E, and N238D) and B (S4T, A46E, and E102K) subunits) displays differential in vitro toxicity and in vivo adjuvant activities compared with LT1. One in vitro generated LT mutant (LTK4R), in which the lysine at position 4 of the A subunit was replaced by arginine, showed most of the LT4 features with an ¡­10-fold reduction of the cytotonic effects, ADP-ribosylation activity, and accumulation of intracellular cAMP in Y1 cells. Molecular dynamic studies of the A subunit showed that the K4R replacement reduces the N-terminal region flexibility and decreases the catalytic site crevice. Noticeably, LT4 showed a stronger Th1-biased adjuvant activity with regard to LT1, particularly concerning activation of cytotoxic CD8+ T lymphocytes when delivered via the intranasal route. Our results further emphasize the relevance of LT polymorphism among human-derived ETEC strains that may impact both the pathogenicity of the bacterial strain and the use of these toxins as potential vaccine adjuvants.

Immunogenic properties of a recombinant fusion protein containing theC-terminal 19 kDa of Plasmodium falciparum merozoite surface protein-1 and the innate immunity agonist FliC flagellin of Salmonella Typhimurium

In a recent study, we demonstrated the immunogenic properties of a new malaria vaccine polypeptidebased on a 19 kDa C-terminal fragment of the merozoite surface protein-1 (MSP119) from Plasmodiumvivax and an innate immunity agonist, the Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium flagellin (FliC).Herein, we tested whether the same strategy, based on the MSP119 component of the deadly malariaparasite Plasmodium falciparum, could also generate a fusion polypeptide with enhanced immunogenicity.The His6FliC-MSP119 fusion protein was expressed from a recombinant Escherichia coli and showedpreserved in vitro TLR5-binding activity. In contrast to animals injected with His6MSP119, mice subcutaneouslyimmunised with the recombinant His6FliC-MSP119 developed strong MSP119-specific systemicantibody responses with a prevailing IgG1 subclass. Incorporation of other adjuvants, such as CpG ODN1826, complete and incomplete Freund’s adjuvants or Quil-A, improved the IgG responses after the second,but not the third, immunising dose. It also resulted in a more balanced IgG subclass response, asevaluated by the IgG1/IgG2c ratio, and higher cell-mediated immune response, as determined by thedetection of antigen-specific interferon- secretion by immune spleen cells. MSP119-specific antibodiesrecognised not only the recombinant protein, but also the native protein expressed on the surface of P.falciparum parasites. Finally, sera from rabbits immunised with the fusion protein alone inhibited the invitro growth of three different P. falciparum strains. In summary, these results extend our previous observationsand further demonstrate that fusion of the innate immunity agonist FliC to Plasmodium antigensis a promising alternative to improve their immunogenicity

Boosting systemic and secreted antibody responses in mice orally immunized with recombinant Bacillus subtilis strains following parenteral priming with a DNA vaccine encoding the enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) CFA/I fimbriae B subunit

Recombinant Bacillus subtilis strains, either spores or vegetative cells, may be employed as safe and low cost orally delivered live vaccine vehicles. In this study, we report the use of an orally delivered B. subtilis vaccine strain to boost systemic and secreted antibody responses in mice i.m. primed with a DNA vaccine encoding the structural subunit (CfaB) of the CFA/I fimbriae encoded by enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC), an important etiological agent of diarrhea among travelers and children living in endemic regions. DBA/2 female mice submitted to the prime-boost immunization regimen developed synergic serum (IgG) and mucosal (IgA) antibody responses to the target CfaB antigen. Moreover, in contrast to mice immunized only with one vaccine formulation, sera harvested from prime-boosted vaccinated individuals inhibited adhesion of ETEC cells to human red blood cells. Additionally, vaccinated dams conferred full passive protection to suckling newborn mice challenged with a virulent ETEC strain. Taken together the present results further demonstrate the potential use of recombinant B. subtilis strains as an alternative live vaccine vehicle.

Evaluation of different promoter sequences and antigen sorting signals on the immunogenicity of Bacillus subtilis vaccine vehicles

Recombinant Bacillus subtilis strains, either in the form of spores or vegetative cells, may be employed as safe and low-cost vaccine vehicles.In this study, we studied the role of promoter sequences and antigen-sorting signals on the immunogenicity based on previously constructedB. subtilis episomal expression systems. Mice orally immunized with spores or cells encoding the B subunit of the heat labile toxin (LTB),originally expressed by some enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) strains, under control of the stress-inducible gsiB promoter developedhigher anti-LTB serum IgG and fecal IgA responses with regard to vaccine strains transformed with plasmids encoding the antigen undercontrol of IPTG-inducible (Pspac) or constitutive (PlepA) promoters. Moreover, surface expression of the vaccine antigen under the controlof the PgsiB promoter enhanced the immunogenicity of vegetative cells, while intracellular accumulation of LTB led to higher antibodyresponses in mice orally immunized with recombinant B. subtilis spores. Specific anti-LTB antibodies raised in vaccinated mice recognizedand neutralized in vitro the native toxin produced by ETEC strains. Nonetheless, only mice orally immunized with recombinant B. subtilisstrains, either as vegetative cells or spores, expressing intracellular LTB under the control of the gsiB promoter conferred partial protectionto lethal challenges with purified LT. The present report further demonstrates that B. subtilis plasmid-based heterologous protein expressionsystems are adequate for antigen delivery via the oral route.

Stable episomal expression system under control of a stress inducible promoter enhances the immunogenicity of Bacillus subtilis as a vector for antigen delivery

Bacillus subtilis has been successfully engineered to express heterologous antigens genetically fused to surface-exposed spore coat proteins asa vaccine vehicle endowed with remarkable heat resistance and probiotic effects for both humans and animals. Nonetheless, the immunogenicityof passenger antigens expressed by B. subtilis spores is low particularly following oral delivery. In this work, we describe a new episomalexpression system promoting enhanced immunogenicity of heterologous antigens carried by B. subtilis strains, either in the form of sporesor vegetative cells, following oral or parenteral delivery to mice. Based on a bi-directional replicating multicopy plasmid, the gene encodingthe B subunit of the heat-labile toxin (LTB), produced by enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) strains, was cloned under the controlof the B. subtilis glucose starvation inducible (gsiB) gene promoter, active in vegetative cells submitted to heat and other stress conditions.The recombinant plasmid proved to be structurally and segregationally stable in both cells and spores under in vitro and in vivo conditions.Moreover, BALB/c mice orally immunized with B. subtilis cells or spores elicited enhanced anti-LTB systemic (serum IgG) and secreted(fecal IgA) antibody responses, thus, suggesting that antigen expression occurred during in vivo transit. These results indicate that the newepisomal expression system may improve the performance of B. subtilis as a live orally-delivered vaccine carrier.