Blends of Pheromones, With and Without Host Plant Volatiles, Can Attract Multiple Species of Cerambycid Beetles Simultaneously.

Pheromone components of cerambycid beetles are often conserved, with a given compound serving as a pheromone component for multiple related species, including species native to different continents. Consequently, a single synthesized compound may attract multiple species to a trap simultaneously. Furthermore, our previous research in east-central Illinois had demonstrated that pheromones of different species can be combined to attract an even greater diversity of species. Here, we describe the results of field bioassays in the northeastern, midwestern, southeastern, south-central, and southwestern United States that assessed attraction of cerambycids to a 'generic' pheromone blend containing six known cerambycid pheromone components, versus the individual components of the blend, and how attraction was influenced by plant volatiles. Nineteen species were attracted in significant numbers, with the pheromone blend attracting about twice as many species as any of the individual components. The blend attracted species of three subfamilies, whereas individual components attracted species within one subfamily. However, some antagonistic interactions between blend components were identified. The plant volatiles ethanol and α-pinene usually enhanced attraction to the blend. Taken together, these experiments suggest that blends of cerambycid pheromones, if selected carefully to minimize inhibitory effects, can be effective for sampling a diversity of species, and that plant volatiles generally enhance attraction. Such generic pheromone blends may serve as an effective and economical method of detecting incursions of exotic, potentially invasive species.

Diel Rhythms in Monochamus (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae): Production of and Response to a Male-Produced Aggregation Pheromone.

Recent research has shown that several species in the genus Monochamus, including Monochamus scutellatus scutellatus (Say) and Monochamus notatus (Drury), a close congener, are attracted to an aggregation pheromone, monochamol, but only M. s. scutellatus produces it. Investigations were conducted to determine if there is a diel rhythm in production of monochamol or response to monochamol + host attractants in field trials by M. s. scutellatus and M. notatus to prevent cross attraction with each other. Volatiles were collected from males and females of M. s. scutellatus and M. notatus every 8 h and analyzed by coupled gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Traps baited with monochamol and the host volatiles α-pinene and ethanol were checked every 8 h in field tests. Only male M. s. scutellatus produced the pheromone, and did so in similar quantities during each 8-h time interval assessed, suggesting there is no diel rhythm in pheromone production. In field tests conducted in early to mid-July, significantly more M. s. scutellatus were captured during morning hours, and significantly more M. notatus were caught during afternoon or early evening hours, suggesting temporal partitioning of flight or in their response to the pheromone lures when both species are present. A temporal switch occurred later in the seasonal flight period (mid-August) when densities of M. s. scutellatus were low; all M. notatus and only one M. s. scutellatus were caught during morning hours. This suggests a temporal separation in mate location behavior when both species are abundant and using the same host to avoid interspecific mating.

Field Response of Monochamus scutellatus scutellatus and Monochamus notatus (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) to the Male-Produced Pheromone, 2-(Undecyloxy)-Ethanol, and Host Volatiles.

Monochamus scutellatus scutellatus (Say) and Monochamus notatus (Drury) are pests of pines due to their ability to vector pinewood nematode, the causal agent of pine wilt disease. Several species of the genus Monochamus use the male-produced aggregation pheromone monochamol, which could potentially be an important component of lures for monitoring these species. In this study, investigations were conducted to determine if traps baited with monochamol were more attractive to male and female M. s. scutellatus and M. notatus with addition of two host volatiles, α-pinene and ethanol. In field tests, traps baited with monochamol + α-pinene or monochamol + α-pinene + ethanol caught significantly more M. s. scutellatus and M. notatus than either controls or monochamol alone. The mean female to male sex ratios of captured beetles increased with the addition of monochamol to α-pinene or α-pinene + ethanol for M. s. scutellatus , but only increased for M. notatus when added to α-pinene + ethanol. These results indicate monochamol can be utilized in formulating highly attractive lures with host volatiles for detection and monitoring of these species.

Modeling Agrilus planipennis (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) within-tree colonization patterns and development of a subsampling technique.

Emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire, an insect native to central Asia, was first detected in southeast Michigan in 2002, and has since killed millions of ash trees (Fraxinus spp.) in North America. The objectives of this study were to 1) determine an optimal sampling location on girdled ash trap trees for detection of A. planipennis larvae based on measurements of tree characteristics, and 2) develop a whole-tree estimation method for extrapolating larval densities from subsampled heights. We conducted sampling at 1-m increments, recording larval presence, height on tree bole, bolt diameter, and bark roughness for 58 infested ash trees. Analyzing height and diameter separately, generalized linear mixed models indicated the probability of A. planipennis detection was maximized at 17.2 cm for diameter and increased linearly as vertical height increased. There was also a positive relationship between intermediate bark roughness and A. planipennis presence. Stepwise regression indicated the optimal bolts for extrapolating whole tree larval densities were, in order of importance, at heights of 1-2 m, 4-5 m, 7-8 m, and 0-1 m. Subsampling with just one or two bolts explained 70% and 86%, respectively, of the variance in A. planipennis densities. Our results can be used by resource managers to improve efficiency of detection efforts and estimate infestations of A. planipennis.

Identification of a male-produced aggregation pheromone for Monochamus scutellatus scutellatus and an attractant for the congener Monochamus notatus (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae).

We report identification and field testing of 2-(undecyloxy)-ethanol (monochamol) as a sex-specific, aggregation pheromone component produced by males of Monochamus scutellatus scutellatus (Say) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), a longhorned beetle native to North America. A congener, Monochamus notatus (Drury), which uses the same hosts as M. s. scutellatus, also was attracted to this compound in field trials, suggesting it may be a pheromone component for this species as well. Panel traps were deployed along transects at each of five field sites in May 2010 to test attraction of native beetle species to a suite of cerambycid pheromone components, including monochamol, 3-hydroxyhexan-2-one, (2R*,3R*)- and (2R*, 3S*)-2,3-hexanediol, racemic (E/Z)-fuscumol, and (E/Z)-fuscumol acetate. In total, 209 adult M. s. scutellatus (136 females, 73 males) and 20 M. notatus (16 females, four males) were captured, of which 86 and 70%, respectively, were captured in traps baited with monochamol (means significantly different). Analysis of headspace volatiles from adult M. s. scutellatus by coupled gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and gas chromatography-electroantennogram detection confirmed that monochamol was produced only by males. Monochamol was not found in headspace extracts from adult M. notatus. This study provides further evidence that monochamol is a pheromone component common to several species in the genus Monochamus. The pheromone component should prove useful for monitoring native species for management purposes or conservation efforts, and for quarantine monitoring for exotic species.

Within-tree distributions of the Sirex noctilio Fabricius (Hymenoptera: Siricidae)--parasitoid complex and development of an optimal sampling scheme.

Little is known about the introduced European woodwasp, Sirex noctilio F. (Hymenoptera: Siricidae), and its hymenopteran parasitoid complex in North America. To assess within-tree and landscape-level densities and distributions of these insects, and develop a more cost effective approach for sampling and monitoring S. noctilio, 18 infested pines (12 P. resinosa Aiton and six P. sylvestris L.) were felled from six stands within three regions in central New York and cut into 0.5-m bolts. Bolts were carefully split to recover all siricids (S. noctilio and native siricids) and parasitoids. In total, 2,558 siricids were recovered; 1,972 siricid larvae and 586 teneral adult S. noctilio. Parasitism of siricids, a majority of which were S. noctilio based on larval rearing results, was 16.4% with Ibalia leucospoides ensiger Norton causing 10.7% of the documented mortality. Numbers of siricids and parasitoids declined 33-86% from the northern to the southern sampling regions, peak insect densities occurred in sections of the bole 15-19 cm in diameter and numbers of insects were generally higher in P. sylvestris than P. resinosa according to the highest ranked zero-inflated poisson and probit regression models. Bark thickness was not correlated with siricid or parasitoid species densities. We also describe sampling plans where as few as two 0.5-m samples from infested trees provided reliable within-tree insect densities.

Factors affecting suitability of Quercus rubra as hosts for Enaphalodes rufulus (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae).

Epidemic populations of Enaphalodes rufulus (Haldeman), red oak borer, a native longhorned wood boring beetle, were implicated as a major contributor to a recent widespread oak mortality event in the Ozark National Forest of Arkansas. We assessed potential factors affecting suitability of a primary host Quercus rubra L., northern red oak, which experienced dieback and mortality throughout two successive borer cohorts. We sampled trees with various E. rufulus infestation levels during 2001-2003 when populations were at outbreak levels and 2003-2005 when borer numbers were declining. We measured phloem thickness and calculated a vigor index; the ratio of the past 5-yr basal area increment to sapwood area. We also counted established first year larval feeding galleries and outer-bark adult emergence holes and measured surface area of feeding galleries on a subset of Q. rubra to assess the importance of host susceptibility versus suitability. Phloem thickness did not exhibit any patterns among hosts of varying infestation levels and was therefore not likely an important factor limiting larval success. Less vigorous Q. rubra appeared to be the most suitable hosts, although it is unclear whether reduced vigor was initially caused by stress of E. rufulus infestation or environmental factors. Host suitability seems to be more important than host susceptibility, as numbers of initiated galleries were not consistently different among host infestation classes and between both cohorts, whereas numbers of emerging adults did differ predictably among host infestation classes.

Optimization of sampling methods for within-tree populations of red oak borer, Enaphalodes rufulus (Haldeman) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae).

In the Ozark Mountains of northern Arkansas and southern Missouri, an oak decline event, coupled with epidemic populations of red oak borer (Enaphalodes rufulus Haldeman), has resulted in extensive red oak (Quercus spp., section Lobatae) mortality. Twenty-four northern red oak trees, Quercus rubra L., infested with red oak borer, were felled in the Ozark National Forest between March 2002 and June 2003. Infested tree boles were cut into 0.5-m sample bolts, and the following red oak borer population variables were measured: current generation galleries, live red oak borer, emergence holes, and previous generation galleries. Population density estimates from sampling plans using varying numbers of samples taken randomly and systematically were compared with total census measurements for the entire infested tree bole. Systematic sampling consistently yielded lower percent root mean square error (%RMSE) than random sampling. Systematic sampling of one half of the tree (every other 0.5-m sample along the tree bole) yielded the lowest values. Estimates from plans systematically sampling one half the tree and systematic proportional sampling using seven or nine samples did not differ significantly from each other and were within 25% RMSE of the "true" mean. Thus, we recommend systematically removing and dissecting seven 0.5-m samples from infested trees as an optimal sampling plan for monitoring red oak borer within-tree population densities. This optimal sampling plan should allow for collection of acceptably accurate within-tree population density data for this native wood-boring insect and reducing labor and costs of dissecting whole trees.