Future directions for epilepsy research.

The authors propose that epilepsy research embark on a revitalized effort to move from targeting control of symptoms to strategies for prevention and cure. The recent advances that make this a realistic goal include identification of genes mutated in inherited epilepsy syndromes, molecular characterization of brain networks, better imaging of sites of seizure origin, and developments in seizure prediction by quantitative EEG analysis. Research directions include determination of mechanisms of epilepsy development, identification of genes for common epilepsy syndromes through linkage analysis and gene chip technology, and validation of new models of epilepsy and epileptogenesis. Directions for therapeutics include identification of new molecular targets, focal methods of drug delivery tied to EEG activity, gene and cell therapy, and surgical and nonablative therapies. Integrated approaches, such as coupling imaging with electrophysiology, are central to progress in localizing regions of epilepsy development in people at risk and better seizure prediction and treatment for people with epilepsy.

Neuregulins increase alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and enhance excitatory synaptic transmission in GABAergic interneurons of the hippocampus.

Neuregulins are highly expressed in the CNS, especially in cholinergic neurons. We have examined the effect of neuregulin on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in neurons dissociated from the rat hippocampus. Rapid application of acetylcholine (ACh) induced a rapidly rising and decaying inward current in some of the neurons, which was completely blocked by methyllycaconitine, a specific antagonist of the alpha7 subunit of the nAChR. When the cells were treated with 5 nm neuregulin (NRG1-beta1) for 2-4 d, a twofold increase in amplitude of the peak ACh-induced current was observed, and there was a comparable increase in (125)I-alpha-bungarotoxin binding. The fast ACh-induced peak current was prominent in large neurons that also contained GABA immunoreactivity. These presumptive GABAergic neurons constituted approximately 10% of neurons present in 7- to 9-d-old cultures. In addition to the large inward peak current, ACh also evoked transmitter release from presynaptic nerve terminals. Pharmacologic experiments indicated that the shower of PSCs was mediated by glutamate, with a small minority caused by the action of GABA. Chronic exposure to NRG1-beta1 increased the amplitude of ACh-evoked PSCs but not the minimum "quantal" PSC. NRG1-beta1 also increased the percentage of neurons that exhibited ACh-evoked PSCs.

Neuregulin and ErbB receptor signaling pathways in the nervous system.

The neuregulins are a complex family of factors that perform many functions during neural development. Recent experiments have shown that neuregulins promote neuronal migration and differentiation, and regulate the selective expression of neurotransmitter receptors in neurons and at the neuromuscular junction. They also regulate glial commitment, proliferation, survival and differentiation. At interneuronal synapses, neuregulin ErbB receptors associate with PDZ-domain proteins at postsynaptic densities where they can modulate synaptic plasticity. How this combinatorial network - comprising many neuregulin ligands that signal through distinct combinations of dimeric ErbB receptors - elicits its multitude of biological effects is beginning to be resolved.

The Agrin/MuSK signaling pathway is spatially segregated from the neuregulin/ErbB receptor signaling pathway at the neuromuscular junction.

The neuregulin/erbB receptor and agrin/MuSK pathways are critical for communication between the nerve, muscle, and Schwann cell that establishes the precise topological arrangement at the vertebrate neuromuscular junction (NMJ). ErbB2, erbB3, and erbB4 as well as neuregulin, agrin, and MuSK are known to be concentrated at the NMJ. Here we have examined NMJs from gastrocnemius muscle of adult rat using immunofluorescence confocal microscopy to characterize in detail the distribution of these proteins relative to the distribution of acetylcholine receptors (AChRs). We have determined that erbB2 and erbB4 are enriched in the depths of the secondary junctional folds on the postsynaptic muscle membrane. In contrast, erbB3 at the NMJ was concentrated at presynaptic terminal Schwann cells. This distribution strongly argues that erbB2/erbB4 heterodimers are the functional postsynaptic neuregulin receptors of the NMJ. Neuregulin was localized to the axon terminal, secondary folds, and terminal Schwann cells, where it was in a position to signal through erbB receptors. MuSK was concentrated in the postsynaptic primary gutter region where it was codistributed with AChRs. Agrin was present at the axon terminal and in the basal lamina associated with the primary gutter region, but not in the secondary junctional folds. The differential distributions of the neuregulin and agrin signaling pathways argue against neuregulin and erbB receptors being localized to the NMJ via direct interactions with either agrin or MuSK.

Neuregulin stimulates DNA synthesis in embryonic chick heart cells.

Neuregulins are a family of growth factors that have been shown to promote the growth or differentiation of various cell types. Recently, targeted mutations of the genes for neuregulins or their putative receptors by homologous recombination resulted in embryonic lethality characterized by cardiac malformation. Here we investigate a role for neuregulin in the growth of cultured chick heart cells. Neuregulin induced the tyrosine phosphorylation of a 185-kDa protein in cultured heart cells, and it also stimulated an increase in [(3)H]thymidine incorporation and BrDU labeling in the cell cultures. Immunocytochemistry revealed that the increased DNA synthesis was primarily in mesenchymal cells and not detected in myocytes or endocardial cells. These data suggest that neuregulin may function as a paracrine signal in mesenchymal-endothelial interactions during cardiac development.

The release of acetylcholine receptor inducing activity (ARIA) from its transmembrane precursor in transfected fibroblasts.

Acetylcholine receptor inducing activity (ARIA) is made by motoneurons and is released at the neuromuscular synapse to stimulate the synthesis of acetylcholine receptors by skeletal muscle. ARIA is derived from a transmembrane precursor (pro-ARIA) via proteolytic cleavage of the ectodomain. We studied requirements in the amino acid sequence at the cleavage site with various substitution and deletion mutations. Wild type (WT) and mutant proteins were transiently expressed in COS cells, and release of ARIA into the conditioned medium was measured by tyrosine phosphorylation of its receptor, p185, in L6 cells. Removal of all potential cleavage sites between the extracellular epidermal growth factor domain and the transmembrane domain by substitution and small deletions (<11 amino acid residues out of 21) did not significantly reduce ARIA release, whereas larger deletions abolished it. We propose that cleavage occurs independently of amino acid sequence at a short distance from the epidermal growth factor domain, unless sterically hindered by the nearby secondary structure. A mutant with shorter cytoplasmic domain ("c" isoform) released significantly less ARIA than the WT ("a" isoform), suggesting that the c isoform may be suitable for signaling through direct cell-cell contact. Alternatively, proteolytic conversion of the a isoform to the c isoform may rapidly down-regulate release of ARIA.

Processing of ARIA and release from isolated nerve terminals.

The neuromuscular junction is a specialized synapse in that every action potential in the presynaptic nerve terminal results in an action potential in the postsynaptic membrane, unlike most interneuronal synapses where a single presynaptic input makes only a small contribution to the population postsynaptic response. The postsynaptic membrane at the neuromuscular junction contains a high density of neurotransmitter (acetylcholine) receptors and a high density of voltage-gated Na+ channels. Thus, the large acetylcholine activated current occurs at the same site where the threshold for action potential generation is low. Acetylcholine receptor inducing activity (ARIA), a 42 kD protein, that stimulates synthesis of acetylcholine receptors and voltage-gated Na+ channels in cultured myotubes, probably plays the same roles at developing and mature motor endplates in vivo. ARIA is synthesized as part of a larger, transmembrane, precursor protein called proARIA. Delivery of ARIA from motor neuron cell bodies in the spinal cord to the target endplates involves several steps, including proteolytic cleavage of proARIA. ARIA is also expressed in the central nervous system and it is abundant in the molecular layer of the cerebellum. In this paper we describe our first experiments on the processing and release of ARIA from subcellular fractions containing synaptosomes from the chick cerebellum as a model system.

Expression patterns of transmembrane and released forms of neuregulin during spinal cord and neuromuscular synapse development.

We mapped the distribution of neuregulin and its transmembrane precursor in developing, embryonic chick and mouse spinal cord. Neuregulin mRNA and protein were expressed in motor and sensory neurons shortly after their birth and levels steadily increased during development. Expression of the neuregulin precursor was highest in motor and sensory neuron cell bodies and axons, while soluble, released neuregulin accumulated along early motor and sensory axons, radial glia, spinal axonal tracts and neuroepithelial cells through associations with heparan sulfate proteoglycans. Neuregulin accumulation in the synaptic basal lamina of neuromuscular junctions occurred significantly later, coincident with a reorganization of muscle extracellular matrix resulting in a relative concentration of heparan sulfate proteoglycans at endplates. These results demonstrate an early axonal presence of neuregulin and its transmembrane precursor at developing synapses and a role for heparan sulfate proteoglycans in regulating the temporal and spatial sites of soluble neuregulin accumulation during development.

Activity-dependent modulation of synaptic AMPA receptor accumulation.

Both theoretical and experimental work have suggested that central neurons compensate for changes in excitatory synaptic input in order to maintain a relatively constant output. We report here that inhibition of excitatory synaptic transmission in cultured spinal neurons leads to an increase in mEPSC amplitudes, accompanied by an equivalent increase in the accumulation of AMPA receptors at synapses. Conversely, increasing excitatory synaptic activity leads to a decrease in synaptic AMPA receptors and a decline in mEPSC amplitude. The time course of this synaptic remodeling is slow, similar to the metabolic half-life of neuronal AMPA receptors. Moreover, inhibiting excitatory synaptic transmission significantly prolongs the half-life of the AMPA receptor subunit GluR1, suggesting that synaptic activity modulates the size of the mEPSC by regulating the turnover of postsynaptic AMPA receptors.

The neuregulin precursor proARIA is processed to ARIA after expression on the cell surface by a protein kinase C-enhanced mechanism.

We have investigated how the transmembrane precursor proARIA is processed to ARIA (acetylcholine receptor-inducing activity). Pulse-chase labeling in transfected Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells showed that proARIA was cleaved to release ARIA into the medium. Cell surface biotin-labeling experiments demonstrated that proARIA was first expressed on the cell surface before being rapidly cleaved to release biotin-labeled ARIA into the medium. While not essential for proteolytic cleavage of proARIA, serum or phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA), which activates protein kinase C (PKC), was needed for the efficient release of the processed ARIA. Proteolytic cleavage was blocked by brefeldin A, suggesting that processing occurred distal to Golgi compartments, and by NH4Cl, suggesting a need for intracellular acidic compartments. Serum and PMA also stimulated ARIA release from cultured sensory neurons, suggesting that a similar regulated release mechanism occurs in neurons and may be important in determining where ARIA is released in the developing nervous system.

Maintenance of acetylcholine receptor number by neuregulins at the neuromuscular junction in vivo.

ARIA (for acetylcholine receptor-inducing activity), a protein purified on the basis of its ability to stimulate acetylcholine receptor (AChR) synthesis in cultured myotubes, is a member of the neuregulin family and is present at motor endplates. This suggests an important role for neuregulins in mediating the nerve-dependent accumulation of AChRs in the postsynaptic membrane. Nerve-muscle synapses have now been analyzed in neuregulin-deficient animals. Mice that are heterozygous for the deletion of neuregulin isoforms containing an immunoglobulin-like domain are myasthenic. Postsynaptic AChR density is significantly reduced, as judged by the decrease in the mean amplitude of spontaneous miniature endplate potentials and bungarotoxin binding. On the other hand, the mean amplitude of evoked endplate potentials was not decreased, due to an increase in the number of quanta released per impulse, a compensation that has been observed in other myasthenic states. Thus, the density of AChRs in the postsynaptic membrane depends on immunoglobulin-containing neuregulin isoforms throughout the life of the animal.

Neurotrophic factors increase neuregulin expression in embryonic ventral spinal cord neurons.

Neuregulins (NRGs) are expressed in spinal cord motor neurons and accumulate at the neuromuscular junction where they may increase the synthesis of postsynaptic acetylcholine receptors and voltage-gated sodium channels. We demonstrate here that NRG expression is selectively increased in rat ventral spinal cord neurons at approximately the time that nerve-muscle synapses first form. A rapid increase in NRG mRNA and protein expression was induced in vitro in cultured rat spinal motor neurons by brain-derived neurotrophic factor, neurotrophin-3, neurotrophin-4, or glial-cell-line-derived neurotrophic factor. Agrin expression was not affected by these factors over the same time course. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor, but not neurotrophin-3, selectively regulated immunoglobulin domain-containing splice variants of NRG, which are likely to be important for binding to the synaptic basal lamina. Regulation of NRG expression in motor neurons by muscle-derived neurotrophic factors may represent one portion of a reciprocal, regulatory loop that promotes neuromuscular synapse development.

ARIA: a neuromuscular junction neuregulin.

Motor neurons influence the expression and the distribution of acetylcholine receptors in skeletal muscle. Molecules that mediate this carefully choreographed interaction have recently been identified. One of them, ARIA, is a polypeptide purified from chicken brain on the basis of its ability to stimulate the synthesis of muscle acetylcholine receptors. The predicted amino acid sequence suggests that ARIA is synthesized as a transmembrane precursor protein and that it is a member of a family of ligands that activate receptor tyrosine kinases related to the epidermal growth factor receptor. Certain features of the ligand family (the neuregulins) and their receptors (erbBs) are reviewed. Evidence that ARIA plays an important role at developing and mature neuromuscularjunctions is discussed.

ARIA is concentrated in the synaptic basal lamina of the developing chick neuromuscular junction.

ARIA is a member of a family of polypeptide growth and differentiation factors that also includes glial growth factor (GGF), neu differentiation factor, and heregulin. ARIA mRNA is expressed in all cholinergic neurons of the central nervous systems of rats and chicks, including spinal cord motor neurons. In vitro, ARIA elevates the rate of acetylcholine receptor incorporation into the plasma membrane of primary cultures of chick myotubes. To study whether ARIA may regulate the synthesis of junctional synaptic acetylcholine receptors in chick embryos, we have developed riboprobes and polyclonal antibody reagents that recognize isoforms of ARIA that include an amino-terminal immunoglobulin C2 domain and examined the expression and distribution of ARIA in motor neurons and at the neuromuscular junction. We detected significant ARIA mRNA expression in motor neurons as early as embryonic day 5, around the time that motor axons are making initial synaptic contacts with their target muscle cells. In older embryos and postnatal animals, we found ARIA protein concentrated in the synaptic cleft at neuromuscular junctions, consistent with transport down motor axons and release at nerve terminals. At high resolution using immunoelectron microscopy, we detected ARIA immunoreactivity exclusively in the synaptic basal lamina in a pattern consistent with binding to synapse specific components on the presynaptic side of the basal lamina. These results support a role for ARIA as a trophic factor released by motor neuron terminals that may regulate the formation of mature neuromuscular synapses.

ARIA is concentrated in nerve terminals at neuromuscular junctions and at other synapses.

Skeletal muscle ACh receptors (AChRs) accumulate at neuromuscular junctions (nmjs) at least partly because of the selective induction of AChR subunit genes in subsynaptic myotube nuclei by the motor nerve terminal. Additionally, mammalian AChRs undergo a postnatal change in subunit composition from embryonic (alpha 2 beta gamma delta) to adult (alpha 2 beta epsilon delta) forms, a switch that also depends on innervation. ARIA, a protein purified from chicken brains based on its ability to induce AChR synthesis in primary chick muscle cells, is a strong candidate for being the molecule responsible for these early developmental events. ARIA mRNA has been detected in embryonic motor neurons during synapse formation, and the gene continues to be expressed postnatally. In this report, we provide evidence that ARIA-like immunoreactivity is concentrated in rat motor nerve terminals from early postnatal ages, and that it can be detected in motor neurons in E18 embryos. ARIA is also detectable in axons within colchicine-treated sciatic nerves, suggesting that the protein in the nerve terminal has been transported from the cell body. ARIA mRNA is present in, but not restricted to, cholinergic neurons. Likewise, we report here that ARIA-like immunoreactivity is present in some noncholinergic central synapses. We also present evidence that isoforms of ARIA are differentially distributed among functionally distinct classes of neurons.

ARIA can be released from extracellular matrix through cleavage of a heparin-binding domain.

ARIA, or acetylcholine receptor-inducing activity, is a polypeptide that stimulates the synthesis of acetylcholine receptors in skeletal muscle. Here we demonstrate that the ability of ARIA to induce phosphorylation of its receptor in muscle is blocked by highly charged glycosaminoglycans. ARIA constructs lacking the NH2-terminal portion, containing an immunoglobulin-like domain, are fully active and are not inhibited by glycosaminoglycans. Limited proteolysis of ARIA with subtilisin blocks the glycosaminoglycan interaction by degrading this NH2-terminal portion, but preserves the active, EGF-like domain. We also show that ARIA can be released from freshly dissociated cells from embryonic chick spinal cord and cerebellum by either heparin, high salt or limited proteolysis with subtilisin, suggesting that ARIA is bound to the extracellular matrix through charged interactions. We present a model of how ARIA may be stored in extracellular matrix at developing synapses and how its release may be mediated by local proteolysis.

Differential expression of ARIA isoforms in the rat brain.

ARIA, heregulin, neu differentiation factor, and glial growth factor are members of a new family of growth and differentiation factors whose effects have been assayed on Schwann cells, skeletal muscle cells, and mammary tumor cell lines. To gain insight into their roles in the CNS, we studied the expression of ARIA in the rat brain. We found ARIA mRNA in all cholinergic neurons throughout the CNS, including motor neurons and cells of the medial septal nucleus and the nucleus basalis of Meynert. We also found that ARIA induces tyrosine phosphorylation of a 185 kDa protein in central and peripheral targets of these cholinergic neurons. ARIA mRNA, however, is not restricted to cholinergic neurons, suggesting that it may also play a role at other types of synapses. Its distribution in germinal layers of the telencephalon and cerebellum suggests that it may also play a role in the proliferation and/or migration of neuronal and glial precursor cells.

A role for the acetylcholine receptor-inducing protein ARIA in oligodendrocyte development.

ARIA acetylcholine receptor-inducing activity protein, is a member of a family of ligands that includes the Neu differentiation factor, heregulin, and glial growth factor. These ligands all act through one or more receptor tyrosine kinases of approximately 185 kDa. In some conditions these ligands promote proliferation, whereas in others they induce differentiation. ARIA was originally isolated from chick brain on the basis of its ability to induce synthesis of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in skeletal muscle. In this paper we show that ARIA is expressed in the subventricular zone of the rat brain and that it enhances the development of oligodendrocytes from bipotential (O2A) glial progenitor cells. We have also found that ARIA induces tyrosine phosphorylation of a 185-kDa protein in O2A progenitor cells. ARIA does not increase bromodeoxyuridine incorporation by oligodendrocytes but is mitogenic when added to Schwann cells in vitro. Thus, ARIA accelerates the formation of oligodendrocytes in vitro and is expressed where it could exercise the same influence in vivo.