Accumulation of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Coastal Sharks from Contrasting Marine Environments: The New York Bight and The Bahamas.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) enter the marine food web, accumulate in organisms, and potentially have adverse effects on predators and consumers of seafood. However, evaluations of PFAS in meso-to-apex predators, like sharks, are scarce. This study investigated PFAS occurrence in five shark species from two marine ecosystems with contrasting relative human population densities, the New York Bight (NYB) and the coastal waters of The Bahamas archipelago. The total detected PFAS (∑PFAS) concentrations in muscle tissue ranged from 1.10 to 58.5 ng g-1 wet weight, and perfluorocarboxylic acids (PFCAs) were dominant. Fewer PFAS were detected in Caribbean reef sharks (Carcharhinus perezi) from The Bahamas, and concentrations of those detected were, on average, ∼79% lower than in the NYB sharks. In the NYB, ∑PFAS concentrations followed: common thresher (Alopias vulpinus) > shortfin mako (Isurus oxyrinchus) > sandbar (Carcharhinus plumbeus) > smooth dogfish (Mustelus canis). PFAS precursors/intermediates, such as 2H,2H,3H,3H-perfluorodecanoic acid and perfluorooctanesulfonamide, were only detected in the NYB sharks, suggesting higher ambient concentrations and diversity of PFAS sources in this region. Ultralong-chain PFAS (C ≥ 10) were positively correlated with nitrogen isotope values (δ15N) and total mercury in some species. Our results provide some of the first baseline information on PFAS concentrations in shark species from the northwest Atlantic Ocean, and correlations between PFAS, stable isotopes, and mercury further contextualize the drivers of PFAS occurrence.

Associations between total mercury, trace minerals, and blood health markers in Northwest Atlantic white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias).

The ecology and life-histories of white sharks make this species susceptible to mercury bioaccumulation; however, the health consequences of mercury exposure are understudied. We measured muscle and plasma total mercury (THg), health markers, and trace minerals in Northwest Atlantic white sharks. THg in muscle tissue averaged 10.0 mg/kg dry weight, while THg in blood plasma averaged 533 µg/L. THg levels in plasma and muscle were positively correlated with shark precaudal length (153-419 cm), and THg was bioaccumulated proportionally in muscle and plasma. Nine sharks had selenium:mercury molar ratios in blood plasma >1.0, indicating that for certain individuals the potential protective effects of the trace mineral were diminished, whereas excess selenium may have protected other individuals. No relationships between plasma THg and any trace minerals or health markers were identified. Thus, we found no evidence of negative effects of Hg bioaccumulation, even in sharks with very high THg.

Risk assessment for seafood consumers exposed to mercury and other trace elements in fish from Long Island, New York, USA.

We determined concentrations of Hg, Pb, Cd, Cr, As, Ni, Ag, Se, Cu, and Zn in muscle tissue of six commonly consumed Long Island fish species (black seabass, bluefish, striped bass, summer flounder, tautog, and weakfish, total sample size = 1211) caught off Long Island, New York in 2018 and 2019. Long-term consumption of these coastal fish could pose health risks largely due to Hg exposure; concentrations of the other trace elements were well below levels considered toxic for humans. By combining the measured Hg concentrations in the fish (means ranging from 0.11 to 0.27 mg/kg among the fish species), the average seafood consumption rate, and the current US EPA Hg reference dose (0.0001 mg/kg/d), it was concluded that seafood consumption should be limited to four fish meals per month for adults for some fish (bluefish, tautog) and half that for young children. Molar ratios of Hg:Se exceeded 1 for some black seabass, bluefish, tautog, and weakfish.

Effects of methylmercury on the early life stages of an estuarine forage fish using two different dietary sources.

Marine fish accumulate methylmercury (MeHg) to elevated concentrations, often higher than in freshwater systems. As a neurotoxic compound, high MeHg tissue concentrations could affect fish behavior which in turn could affect their populations. We examined the sublethal effects of MeHg on larvae of the Sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus), an estuarine fish, using artificial or natural diets with varying MeHg concentrations (0-4.8 ppm). Larvae were fed control and MeHg-contaminated diets at low or normal (10% of their body mass) daily food rations from 7 to 29 days when they reached juvenile stage. Growth, respiration, swimming activity and prey capture ability were assessed. Food ration affected Hg toxicity in our study. Natural diets containing 3.2 ppm MeHg had no impacts on growth and swimming in fish that were fed normal food rations but depressed growth and swimming at low food rations. MeHg toxicity did not differ between artificial and natural foods, however fish accumulated more MeHg from the former. Artificial food containing 4.8 ppm MeHg only affected prey capture after 21 days of exposure. Sheepshead minnows, a forage fish species occupying a low trophic level in coastal waters, can be MeHg tolerant, especially when food is abundant, and can serve as an enriched Hg source for higher trophic level predators.

Metal concentrations in coastal sharks from The Bahamas with a focus on the Caribbean Reef shark.

Over the last century anthropogenic activities have rapidly increased the influx of metals and metalloids entering the marine environment, which can bioaccumulate and biomagnify in marine top consumers. This may elicit sublethal effects on target organisms, having broad implications for human seafood consumers. We provide the first assessment of metal (Cd, Pb, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, As, Ag, and THg) and metalloid (As) concentrations in the muscle tissue of coastal sharks from The Bahamas. A total of 36 individual sharks from six species were evaluated, spanning two regions/study areas, with a focus on the Caribbean reef shark (Carcharhinus perezi), and to a lesser extent the tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier). This is due their high relative abundance and ecological significance throughout coastal Bahamian and regional ecosystems. Caribbean reef sharks exhibited some of the highest metal concentrations compared to five other species, and peaks in the concentrations of Pb, Cr, Cu were observed as individuals reached sexual maturity. Observations were attributed to foraging on larger, more piscivorous prey, high longevity, as well a potential slowing rate of growth. We observed correlations between some metals, which are challenging to interpret but may be attributed to trophic level and ambient metal conditions. Our results provide the first account of metal concentrations in Bahamian sharks, suggesting individuals exhibit high concentrations which may potentially cause sublethal effects. Finally, these findings underscore the potential toxicity of shark meat and have significant implications for human consumers.

Separating Thermal and Viscous Effects of Temperature on Copepod Respiration and Energy Budget.

AbstractChanges in temperature alter the viscosity of fluids, which impacts the force needed to move and the diffusion rates of gases. This is particularly salient for organisms that operate at mid to low Reynolds numbers. In this study, we investigated the independent effects of changes in temperature and viscosity on oxygen consumption rates of two coastal copepods (Acartia tonsa and Parvocalanus crassirostris) and used bioenergetic models to predict how these patterns could influence copepods in the natural environment. We found that only temperature influenced copepod oxygen consumption rates, indicating that copepods were not impacted by reduced oxygen diffusivity or increased energetics of movement resulting from higher seawater viscosity. We developed energy budgets based on novel respiration experiments in conjunction with data from the literature and found that cold temperatures do not result in higher scope for growth, because decreased metabolic costs are offset by reduced feeding capability. Our energy budgets imply that observed copepod temperature ranges in natural waters match theoretical ranges of optimal net carbon assimilation. At cold temperatures, feeding on motile prey yielded higher net carbon assimilation compared to feeding on non-motile prey, implying that motile prey are more favorable and may be actively selected for at cold temperatures. Finally, our models predicted that A. tonsa had a higher maximum net carbon assimilation as a percentage of body mass, indicating that copepods that use a similar sink-and-wait feeding strategy may be better able to exploit ephemeral food sources compared to continuous-swimming copepods such as P. crassirostris.

Minor effects of dietary methylmercury on growth and reproduction of the sheepshead minnow Cyprinodon variegatus and toxicity to their offspring.

Methylmercury (MeHg) is a neurotoxic compound that is found in virtually all fish and biomagnifies in aquatic food webs. Although MeHg concentrations in marine and estuarine fish are often elevated, the impacts of MeHg on marine and estuarine fish have largely been understudied. To evaluate the impact of dietary MeHg on marine fish reproduction and effects on their offspring, female juvenile sheepshead minnows (Cyprinodon variegatus) at three months of age were experimentally exposed to MeHg-contaminated diets for two months and then paired with Hg-free males for spawning. Egg production, hatching success of embryos, time to hatching, survival of larvae, growth of larvae and swimming behavior of larvae were determined. Selenium (Se) was also measured and Se/Hg molar ratios were calculated to assess whether Se reduced MeHg toxicity. MeHg had no significant impact on fish reproduction or on survival and growth of larvae. Larvae produced by MeHg-exposed mothers had concentrations of Hg about 1 ppm (dry wt), or about 12% of that in the muscle of their mothers and consistently displayed 6-15% increased swimming speed relative to controls; the ecological significance of this moderate effect on swimming speed requires further study. The Se/Hg molar ratios in these fish, which were >1 in controls (adults and larvae) and MeHg-exposed larvae but <1 in Hg-exposed adults, did not correlate with MeHg effects. The sheepshead minnow, at a low trophic level, appears to have a high tolerance of MeHg; however, it can pass MeHg to higher trophic levels in marine ecosystems where upper level predators have MeHg concentrations sometimes exceeding US FDA safety limits of 1 ppm wet wt.

Copepod feeding strategy determines response to seawater viscosity: videography study of two calanoid copepod species.

Calanoid copepods, depending on feeding strategy, have different behavioral and biological controls on their movements, thereby responding differently to environmental conditions such as changes in seawater viscosity. To understand how copepod responses to environmental conditions are mediated through physical, physiological and/or behavioral pathways, we used high-speed microvideography to compare two copepod species, Acartia hudsonica and Parvocalanus crassirostris, under different temperature, viscosity and dietary conditions. Acartia hudsonica exhibited 'sink and wait' feeding behavior and typically responded to changes in seawater viscosity; increased seawater viscosity reduced particle-capture behavior and decreased the size of the feeding current. In contrast, P. crassirostris continuously swam and did not show any behavioral or physical responses to changes in viscosity. Both species showed a physiological response to temperature, with reduced appendage beating frequency at cold temperatures, but this did not generally translate into effects on swimming speed, feeding flux or active time. Both copepod species swam slower when feeding on diatom rather than dinoflagellate prey, showing that prey type mediates copepod behavior. These results differentiate species-specific behaviors and responses to environmental conditions, which may lead to better understanding of niche separation and latitudinal patterns in copepod feeding and movement strategies.

An assessment of temporal trends in mercury concentrations in fish.

The importance of fish consumption as the primary pathway of human exposure to mercury and the establishment of fish consumption advisories to protect human health have led to large fish tissue monitoring programs worldwide. Data on fish tissue mercury concentrations collected by state, tribal, and provincial governments via contaminant monitoring programs have been compiled into large data bases by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Great Lakes National Monitoring Program Office (GLNPO), the Ontario Ministry of the Environment's Fish Contaminants Monitoring and Surveillance Program (FMSP), and many others. These data have been used by a wide range of governmental and academic investigators worldwide to examine long-term and recent trends in fish tissue mercury concentrations. The largest component of the trend literature is for North American freshwater species important in recreational fisheries. This review of temporal trends in fish tissue mercury concentrations focused on published results from freshwater fisheries of North America as well as marine fisheries worldwide. Trends in fish tissue mercury concentrations in North American lakes with marked overall decreases were reported over the period 1972-2016. These trends are consistent with reported mercury emission declines as well as trends in wet deposition across the U.S. and Canada. More recently, a leveling-off in the rate of decreases or increases in fish tissue mercury concentrations has been reported. Increased emissions of mercury from global sources beginning between 1990 and 1995, despite a decrease in North American emissions, have been advanced as an explanation for the observed changes in fish tissue trends. In addition to increased atmospheric deposition, the other factors identified to explain the observed mercury increases in the affected fish species include a systematic shift in the food-web structure with the introduction of non-native species, creating a new or expanding role for sediments as a net source for mercury. The influences of climate change have also been identified as contributing factors, including considerations such as increases in temperature (resulting in metabolic changes and higher uptake rates of methylmercury), increased rainfall intensity and runoff (hydrologic export of organic matter carrying HgII from watersheds to surface water), and water level fluctuations that alter either the methylation of mercury or the mobilization of monomethylmercury. The primary source of mercury exposure in the human diet in North America is from the commercial fish and seafood market which is dominated (>90%) by marine species. However, very little information is available on mercury trends in marine fisheries. Most of the data used in the published marine trend studies are assembled from earlier reports. The data collection efforts are generally intermittent, and the spatial and fish-size distribution of the target species vary widely. As a result, convincing evidence for the existence of fish tissue mercury trends in marine fish is generally lacking. However, there is some evidence from sampling of large, long-lived commercially-important fish showing both lower mercury concentrations in the North Atlantic in response to reduced anthropogenic mercury emission rates in North America and increases in fish tissue mercury concentrations over time in the North Pacific in response to increased mercury loading.

Trophodynamics and mercury bioaccumulation in reef and open-ocean fishes from The Bahamas with a focus on two teleost predators.

Identifying prey resource pools supporting fish biomass can elucidate trophic pathways of pollutant bioaccumulation. We used multiple chemical tracers (carbon [δ13C] and nitrogen [δ15N] stable isotopes and total mercury [THg]) to identify trophic pathways and measure contaminant loading in upper trophic level fishes residing at a reef and open-ocean interface near Eleuthera in the Exuma Sound, The Bahamas. We focused predominantly on the trophic pathways of mercury bioaccumulation in dolphinfish Coryphaena hippurus and wahoo Acanthocybium solandri, 2 commonly consumed pelagic sportfish in the region. Despite residing within close proximity to productive and extensive coral reefs, both dolphinfish and wahoo relied almost exclusively on open-ocean prey over both short and long temporal durations. A larger isotopic niche of dolphinfish suggested a broader diet and some potential prey differentiation between the 2 species. THg concentrations in dolphinfish (0.2 ± 0.1 ppm) and wahoo (0.3 ± 0.3 ppm) were mostly below recommended guidelines for humans (US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) = 0.3 ppm, US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)= 1.0 ppm) and were within ranges previously reported for these species. However, high THg concentrations were observed in muscle and liver tissue of commonly consumed reef-associated fishes, identifying a previously unrecognized route of potentially toxic Hg exposure for human consumers on Eleuthera and neighboring islands.

Microbial generation of elemental mercury from dissolved methylmercury in seawater.

Elemental mercury (Hg0) formation from other mercury species in seawater results from photoreduction and microbial activity, leading to possible evasion from seawater to overlying air. Microbial conversion of monomethylmercury (MeHg) to Hg0 in seawater remains unquantified. A rapid radioassay method was developed using gamma-emitting 203Hg as a tracer to evaluate Hg0 production from Hg(II) and MeHg in the low pM range. Bacterioplankton assemblages in Atlantic surface seawater and Long Island Sound water were found to rapidly produce Hg0, with production rate constants being directly related to bacterial biomass and independent of dissolved Hg(II) and MeHg concentrations. About 32% of Hg(II) and 19% of MeHg were converted to Hg0 in 4 d in Atlantic surface seawater containing low bacterial biomass, and in Long Island Sound water with higher bacterial biomass, 54% of Hg(II) and 8% of MeHg were transformed to Hg0. Decreasing temperatures from 24°C to 4°C reduced Hg0 production rates cell-1 from Hg(II) 3.3 times as much as from a MeHg source. Because Hg0 production rates were linearly related to microbial biomass and temperature, and microbial mercuric reductase was detected in our field samples, we inferred that microbial metabolic activities and enzymatic reactions primarily govern Hg0 formation in subsurface waters where light penetration is diminished.

Evaluation of body size and temperature on 137Cs uptake in marine animals.

137Cs bioaccumulation and retention in seven different marine animal species, including crustaceans, mollusc larvae, and fish larvae were compared under different temperature conditions (10 °C, 18 °C and 25 °C). Replicate animals were experimentally exposed to 0.5 nM 137Cs dissolved in filtered seawater for 3 days, and their 137Cs contents were periodically measured using gamma spectrometry. Among the seven species, 137Cs bioconcentration factors ranged from 14 to 239 at the end of the exposure periods. Following uptake, the137Cs loss rate constants from the animals ranged from 5 to 50% d-1 and were unaffected by temperature or animal size. The 137Cs bioconcentration factors were directly related to animal size and hence their surface: volume ratios, consistent with the conclusion that Cs sorption from the aqueous phase is the principal uptake mechanism in these animals. With the exception of gastropods, temperature had no major influence on Cs uptake and efflux in the experimental species.

Spatial and temporal trends of mercury in the aquatic food web of the lower Penobscot River, Maine, USA, affected by a chlor-alkali plant.

Mercury (Hg) concentrations in aquatic biota, including fish and shellfish, were measured over the period 2006-2012 in the lower Penobscot River and upper estuary (Maine, USA). The Penobscot is a system contaminated with Hg by a chlor-alkali plant that operated from 1967 to 2000, discharging 6-12 tons of mercury into the river. Mercury levels in aquatic biota were highest at sites downstream of the chlor-alkali plant and spatial trends were similar to those of sediments. Mean total Hg concentrations in fish muscle (adjusted for size or age) in the most affected areas were 521 (480, 566; 95% CI) ng/g ww in American eels, 321 (261,395) in mummichog, 121 (104, 140) in rainbow smelt, 155 (142,169) in tomcod, 55.2 (42.7,71.4) in winter flounder, and 328 (259,413) in American lobster tail and 522 (488,557) ng/g dw in blue mussel. Levels exceeded the 50 ng/g ww considered protective for piscivorous predators and were of concern for human health, with American eels and American lobster exceeding Maine's mercury action level of 200 ng/g ww. Calculations of trophic position (using nitrogen isotopes) suggested that the spatial patterns observed in total Hg concentrations were not due to changes in feeding habits of the species. Fish feeding in benthic food webs, as defined by stomach content and stable carbon isotope analyses, showed no change in Hg concentrations over time. In contrast, declining trends in Hg were found in two species dependent on pelagic food webs. The absence of declines in Hg concentrations in the benthically-based food webs, despite the fact that most Hg was discharged into the system >40 years ago, is consistent with the long recovery predicted from dated sediment cores and from similar studies elsewhere.

Temporal Changes in 137Cs Concentrations in Fish, Sediments, And Seawater off Fukushima Japan.

We analyzed publicly available data of Fukushima 137Cs concentrations in coastal fish, in surface and bottom waters, and in surface marine sediments and found that within the first year of the accident pelagic fish lost 137Cs at much faster rates (mean of ∼1.3% d-1) than benthic fish (mean of ∼0.1% d-1), with benthopelagic fish having intermediate loss rates (mean of ∼0.2% d-1). The loss rates of 137Cs in benthic fish in the first year were more comparable to the decline of 137Cs concentrations in sediments (0.03% d-1), and the declines in pelagic fish were more comparable to the declines in seawater. Retention patterns of 137Cs in pelagic fish were comparable to that in laboratory studies of fish in which there were no sustained 137Cs sources, whereas the benthopelagic and benthic fish species retained 137Cs to a greater extent, consistent with the idea that there is a sustained additional 137Cs source for these fish. These field data, based on 13 511 data points in which 137Cs was above the detection limit, are consistent with conclusions from laboratory experiments that demonstrate that benthic fish can acquire 137Cs from sediments, primarily through benthic invertebrates that contribute to the diet of these fish.

Fifty years after its discharge, methylation of legacy mercury trapped in the Penobscot Estuary sustains high mercury in biota.

Fifty years ago, the Penobscot Estuary was contaminated by mercury discharged from the chlor-alkali plant located in Orrington, Maine, USA. Almost all of the mercury was discharged from the plant during the late 1960s and early 1970s. Despite the much lower mercury discharges in recent decades, present-day concentrations in surface sediment remain high (averaging 350-1100 ng/g dw) and are still high in blood of marsh birds (up to 10.5 µg/g), black duck muscle (0.8 µg/g), and lobster muscle (0.4 µg/g). Methyl mercury (MeHg) concentrations in marsh birds exceed levels that impair reproduction. There are health advisories for duck hunters and closures of shellfish fisheries. These continuing high mercury concentrations are caused by the trapping of legacy mercury in a mobile pool of sediment that is retained in the upper estuary above a tidally forced salinity front, which travels up and down the estuary each tidal cycle - slowing the transport of particulate mercury to Penobscot Bay. The trapped legacy mercury continues to be available for methylation 50 years after it first entered the estuary. This is demonstrated by the fact that rates of MeHg production are positively related to the inorganic mercury concentration in parts of the estuary with elevated concentrations of legacy mercury. Thus, remediation measures that would lower the THg concentration in surface sediment would lower the MeHg in birds, fish and shellfish. All of this new information leads us to recommend two remediation options. Addition of mercury binding agents may lower mercury concentrations in birds in some wetland areas. System-wide, we also recommend Enhanced Natural Recovery (ENR), a novel approach that involves the partial removal of the contaminated mobile sediment pool followed by replacement with clean-clay particulates to dilute inorganic mercury concentrations, which would lower methylation rates and mercury concentrations in biota.

Bioaccumulation and trophic transfer of 137Cs in marine and freshwater plankton.

An experimental study was conducted to investigate the trophic transfer of 137Cs in marine and freshwater food chains, focusing on phytoplankton, zooplankton, and planktivorous fish. Algal concentration factors were 278 in freshwater and 69 in seawater. The weight-normalized uptake rate constants of 137Cs were similar for both freshwater daphnids and marine copepods. Most of the 137Cs in marine copepods was in the exoskeleton followed by polar and non-polar components. In freshwater daphnids, 137Cs was highest in the polar fractions followed by exoskeleton and low amounts in the non-polar components. Fish that fed on contaminated marine copepods assimilated 137Cs with an efficiency of 88%, while 91% was assimilated from freshwater daphnids. A bioaccumulation model demonstrated that diet accounted for ≤3% of the total body burden of 137Cs in marine zooplankton and ≤12% in freshwater zooplankton, but ≥99% of the total body burden in fish. Rate constants of 137Cs loss from fish following aqueous exposure were 0.2 d-1 and 0.4 d-1 in marine and freshwater conditions, respectively, but only 0.06 d-1 and 0.3 d-1, respectively, following dietary exposure. This model also indicates that trophic transfer factors from zooplankton to fish are up to 2.2 for marine conditions and up to 0.6 for freshwater. 137Cs is unusual among metals in that it enters marine food chains primarily from the aqueous phase into zooplankton, from which it is highly assimilated by fish, resulting in detectable 137Cs in fish tissues.

Mercury Stable Isotopes Reveal Influence of Foraging Depth on Mercury Concentrations and Growth in Pacific Bluefin Tuna.

Pelagic ecosystems are changing due to environmental and anthropogenic forces, with uncertain consequences for the ocean's top predators. Epipelagic and mesopelagic prey resources differ in quality and quantity, but their relative contribution to predator diets has been difficult to track. We measured mercury (Hg) stable isotopes in young (<2 years old) Pacific bluefin tuna (PBFT) and their prey species to explore the influence of foraging depth on growth and methylmercury (MeHg) exposure. PBFT total Hg (THg) in muscle ranged from 0.61 to 1.93 µg g-1 dw (1.31 µg g-1 dw ±0.37 SD; 99% ± 6% MeHg) and prey ranged from 0.01 to 1.76 µg g-1 dw (0.13 µg g-1 dw ±0.19 SD; 85% ± 18% MeHg). A systematic decrease in prey δ202Hg and Δ199Hg with increasing depth of occurrence and discrete isotopic signatures of epipelagic prey (δ202Hg: 0.74 to 1.49‰; Δ199Hg: 1.76-2.96‰) and mesopelagic prey (δ202Hg: 0.09 to 0.90‰; Δ199Hg: 0.62-1.95‰) allowed the use of Hg isotopes to track PBFT foraging depth. An isotopic mixing model was used to estimate the dietary proportion of mesopelagic prey in PBFT, which ranged from 17% to 55%. Increased mesopelagic foraging was significantly correlated with slower growth and higher MeHg concentrations in PBFT. The slower observed growth rates suggest that prey availability and quality could reduce the production of PBFT biomass.

Mercury bioaccumulation increases with latitude in a coastal marine fish (Atlantic silverside, Menidia menidia).

Human exposure to the neurotoxic methylmercury (MeHg) occurs primarily via the consumption of marine fish, but the processes underlying large-scale spatial variations in fish MeHg concentrations [MeHg], which influence human exposure, are not sufficiently understood. We used the Atlantic silverside (Menidia menidia), an extensively studied model species and important forage fish, to examine latitudinal patterns in total Hg [Hg] and [MeHg]. Both [Hg] and [MeHg] significantly increased with latitude (0.014 and 0.048 µg MeHg g-1 dw per degree of latitude in juveniles and adults, respectively). Four known latitudinal trends in silverside traits help explain these patterns: latitudinal increase in MeHg assimilation efficiency, latitudinal decrease in MeHg efflux, latitudinal increase in weight loss due to longer and more severe winters, and latitudinal increase in food consumption as an adaptation to decreasing length of the growing season. Given the absence of a latitudinal pattern in particulate MeHg, a diet proxy for zooplanktivorous fish, we conclude that large-scale spatial variation in growth is the primary control of Hg bioaccumulation in this and potentially other fish species.

Assessing Fukushima-Derived Radiocesium in Migratory Pacific Predators.

The 2011 release of Fukushima-derived radionuclides into the Pacific Ocean made migratory sharks, teleosts, and marine mammals a source of speculation and anxiety regarding radiocesium (134+137Cs) contamination, despite a lack of actual radiocesium measurements for these taxa. We measured radiocesium in a diverse suite of large predators from the North Pacific Ocean and report no detectable (i.e., ≥ 0.1 Bq kg-1 dry wt) Fukushima-derived 134Cs in all samples, except in one olive ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) with trace levels (0.1 Bq kg-1). Levels of 137Cs varied within and across taxa, but were generally consistent with pre-Fukushima levels and were lower than naturally occurring 40K by one to one to two orders of magnitude. Predator size had a weaker effect on 137Cs and 40K levels than tissue lipid content. Predator stable isotope values (δ13C and δ15N) were used to infer recent migration patterns, and showed that predators in the central, eastern, and western Pacific should not be assumed to accumulate detectable levels of radiocesium a priori. Nondetection of 134Cs and low levels of 137Cs in diverse marine megafauna far from Fukushima confirms negligible increases in radiocesium, with levels comparable to those prior to the release from Fukushima. Reported levels can inform recently developed models of cesium transport and bioaccumulation in marine species.