Age and diet effects on relative renal echogenicity in geriatric bitches.

Under controlled, but varied dietary conditions 35 geriatric, uninephrectomized, spayed Beagle bitches (dogs) observed for 4 years, renal cortical and renal medullary echogenicity was measured relative to hepatic and splenic echogenicity. Regardless of the diet fed, 60-75% of these aged dogs had renal cortical echogenicity less than that of either the liver or spleen across time; 25-35% of these dogs had renal cortical echogenicity equal to that of the liver, but less than that of the spleen across time. Less than 3% of these dogs had renal cortical echogenicity greater than that of the liver, but less than that of the spleen. Only 1 (one) of these dogs had renal cortical echogenicity equal to that of the spleen and that occurred at only one of the 14 chronologic assessments. Therefore, in either mature or aged dogs imaged with 4.0 to 5.0 MHz equipment, the renal cortical echogenicity should be considered normal if it is less than or equal to that of the liver and less than that of the spleen. In 29 dogs imaged with the 4.0/5.0 MHz equipment and 6 dogs imaged with 7.5 MHz equipment, there was no significant diet or individual dog effect. The 7.5 MHz (6 dog) group had significantly higher average cortical echogenicity scores than the 4.0/5.0 MHz (29 dog) group. However, the occurrence of renal cortical echogenicity greater than liver echogenicity was seen in only 5 of 83 samples (approximately 6.0%) made on 6 dogs imaged with 7.5 MHz equipment and only 1 of 375 samples (approximately 0.27%) made on 29 dogs with 4.0/5.0 MHz equipment. With the exception of one occurrence, all dogs had renal medullary echogenicity less than that of the liver or spleen regardless of imaging equipment frequency. The renal medulla was always hypoechoic compared to the cortex.

Effects of diet and aging on renal measurements in uninephrectomized geriatric bitches.

Under controlled, but varied dietary conditions among geriatric, uninephrectomized Beagle bitches (dogs) observed for 4 years, renal size increase as assessed radiographically and ultrasonographically occurred at variable rates, but on a seemingly continuous basis. The maximum observed mean renal linear parameter increase found was approximately 15%. However, a 10 and 15% increase is a more representative expectation among the 4 parameters (sonographic length, radiographic length, sonographic width, radiographic width) under consideration. The rate of renal size increase was rapid during the first 2 to 3 months following uninephrectomy. Thereafter, the rate of increase was slow, but occurred to varying degrees in both the length and width as assessed radiographically or ultrasonographically. The mechanism creating the size change was hypertrophy, not hyperplasia. Within limits of the 3 diets used in the study, no significant diet effect was found on the rate or degree of long term compensatory hypertrophy. Radiographically and ultrasonographically measured renal length had the greatest correlation with each other as well as with post mortem measurements and are, therefore, the recommended parameter for imaging assessment of compensatory hypertrophy. When the prenephrectomy, radiographic renal lengths and widths were normalized as a ratio of the second lumbar vertebral body length (L2) measured from ventrodorsal radiographs, the diet group means across dogs (approximately three L2 lengths for renal length; two L2 lengths for renal width) were in the middle of the respective previously published normal radiographic ranges for mature dogs (e.g. 2.5 L2 < or = length < or = 3.5 L2; 1.58 L2 < or = width < or = 2.38 L2 lengths). Even after the hypertrophic changes occurred, the radiographic group mean lengths and widths across dogs were still within the specified normal ranges, although toward the upper end of the respective range. This information provides background for clinical interpretation of potential compensatory hypertrophy that may be encountered following uninephrectomy for spontaneous disease in aged dogs. In addition, it appears that available radiographic renal linear ranges for normal mature dogs are applicable to geriatric dogs as well.

Effects of various methods of preservation on the stability of uric acid in frozen canine urine.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effects of dilution and alkalinization, separately and together, on the stability of uric acid in canine urine stored at -20 C. DESIGN: Prospective-controlled study. ANIMALS: 5 dogs with confirmed ammonium urate uroliths, 6 Beagles, and 6 mixed-breed dogs. PROCEDURE: Dogs were fed a 31.4% protein (dry weight), meat-based diet for 21 days, and urine samples were collected on day 22. Urine samples were preserved, using combinations of dilution and alkalinization, and divided into 1-ml aliquots for storage at -20 C for 1 to 12 weeks. Urine uric acid concentrations were measured, using high-performance liquid chromatography, on day of collection (baseline), and after 1, 2, 4, 8, and 12 weeks. RESULTS: Alkalinization did not have a significant effect on reproducibility of measurements of uric acid concentrations in urine; however, dilution did have a significant effect. Compared with baseline, uric acid concentrations in urine samples collected from dogs with ammonium urate uroliths and Beagles and diluted 1:10 or 1:20 with deionized water were not different after storage for 1 to 12 weeks. Uric acid concentrations in urine samples collected from mixed-breed dogs did not differ from baseline values during the 12-week storage period whether samples were undiluted or were diluted 1:10 or 1:20 with deionized water. CONCLUSIONS: Measurements of uric acid concentration are most reproducible in canine urine samples stored at -20 C for 1 to 12 weeks when samples are diluted 1:20 with deionized water. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: To ensure reproducibility of measurements of uric acid concentration in urine samples collected from dogs affected with urate uroliths, urine should be diluted 1:20 with deionized water. Alkalinization is not necessary, and is not recommended because of the additional step in processing and its potential to interfere with measurement of other urinary analytes.

Applied anatomy and physiology of the feline lower urinary tract.

Paired ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra constitute the lower urinary tract. Oblique passage of ureters through the bladder wall results in compression of the distal ureter to preclude urine reflux. Ureters are anchored by longitudinal ureteral musculature that outlines the bladder trigone and extends into dorsal submucosa of the urethra as urethral crest. The urinary bladder can be divided into apex, body, and neck. The male urethra has penile and pelvic components, the latter is divisible into preprostatic, prostatic, and postprostatic regions. The muscle coat of the bladder-urethra forms three functional entities in craniocaudal series. These are the detrusor muscle (to effect voiding), internal urethral sphincter (smooth muscle for generating tonic resistance), and external urethral sphincter (striated urethralis m. for phasic and voluntary continence). The vesical neck is a transition region. It is part of the internal urethral sphincter by virtue of its histology and innervation, but it contains detrusor fascicles that pull it open during micturition. Viscous accommodation plus sympathetic reflex inhibition of the vesical wall allows the urinary bladder to greatly expand in volume with minimal increase of intravesical pressure, within limits. At low volumes continence can be maintained by passive resistive elements of the urethral outlet. As volume increases, sympathetic reflex activity is necessary for continence. The striated external urethral sphincter is reflexly contracted to counter abrupt elevations of intravesical pressure and to maintain continence voluntarily. The pelvic plexus conveys sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation to the urinary tract. The pudendal nerve supplies the urethra and urethralis muscle. Ureters are largely independent of innervation. Internal and external urethral sphincters are activated by spinal reflexes, sympathetic and somatic reflexes, respectively. Normal micturition (sustained detrusor contraction and sphincter inhibition) is a brainstem-driven reflex, involving a spino-bulbo-spinal pathway and a pontine micturition center that switches from urine storage to micturition. All of the reflexes depend on neural activity in tension mechanoreceptors of the bladder wall and sacral afferent fibers.

Prevalence of atretic corpora lutea in ovaries of bovine fetuses.

Both ovaries from 88 bovine fetuses in the fifth month or later of gestation were studied histologically to determine the prevalence, origin, and time of appearance of atretic corpora lutea (ACL). Ovaries from 36 (41%) fetuses had ACL; fetuses < 6 months of gestation did not have ACL. Six fetuses had more than 25 ACL, but there was no apparent relationship between fetal age and number of ACL. Formation of ACL involved disintegration of the stratum granulosum of secondary follicles, concomitant with proliferation and invasion by vascularized elements of the theca. Fully developed ACL consisted of a large primary oocyte surrounded by a prominent zona pellucida and encased in a well-vascularized, largely thecal, fibrocellular wall. They measured approximately 0.5 to 1.0 mm in diameter. Empty, collapsed zona pellucidas were seen in many of the degenerating ACL.

Perchlorate potentiation of excitation-contraction coupling in mammalian skeletal muscles.

The action of perchlorate (ClO4-), an agonist of the voltage sensor in excitation-contraction (EC) coupling, has been examined using bundles of intact muscle cells, isolated membrane vesicles [sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) and transverse tubule (TT)], and cultured myotubes. The effect of ClO4- on mechanical parameters was investigated in isolated murine limb muscles. The presence of ClO4- (5 or 10 mM) greatly increased twitch tension ( > 250%), slightly enhanced tetanic tension, and increased K contracture tension. K contracture thresholds of extensor digitorum longus (EDL, 40 mM K+) and soleus (30 mM K+) muscles were not altered by ClO4-. However, in whole cell patch clamp studies of mouse myotubes, contractile activation was shifted by approximately -10 mV by 10 mM ClO4-. To further define the site of alteration of EC coupling by ClO4-, studies were conducted with isolated porcine SR and TT vesicles and with cultured mouse myotubes. The rate constant of Ca-induced 45Ca release from SR vesicles was significantly increased by ClO4-. However, neither the affinity nor level of [3H]PN200-110 binding to TT vesicles was significantly affected by ClO4- concentrations that increased twitch tension. Furthermore, slow plasmalemmal Ca currents of myotubes recorded in the whole cell patch-clamp mode were enhanced by 10 mM ClO4-, and the current-voltage relationship was shifted approximately -7mV. Thus, in enhancing EC coupling in mammalian muscle, ClO4- may act at multiple sites including the SR Ca release channel and the TT Ca channel-voltage sensor.

Clinical evaluation of cats with lower urinary tract disease.

In a prospective study, 141 cats with hematuria, dysuria, urethral obstruction, or combinations of these signs were evaluated by contemporary diagnostic methods and compared with 26 clinically normal cats (controls). Specific diagnosis was established in 45% (64/141) of cats affected with lower urinary tract disease (LUTD). Crystalline matrix plug-induced urethral obstruction was diagnosed in 21% (30/141) of affected cats, uroliths were identified in 21% (30/141) of affected cats, uroliths with concomitant bacterial urinary tract infection (UTI) were identified in less than 2% (2/141) of affected cats, and bacterial UTI alone was identified in less than 2% (2/141) of cats with LUTD. Viruses, mycoplasmas, and ureaplasmas were not isolated from urine samples collected from affected or control cats. Bovine herpesvirus 4 (BHV-4)-neutralizing antibodies were not detected in any serum sample obtained from cats with LUTD or from control cats. In contrast, BHV-4 antibodies were detected by an indirect immunofluorescent antibody (IFA) test in sera obtained from 31% (44/141) of cats with LUTD and 23% (6/26) of control cats. The prevalence of positive BHV-4 IFA test results in affected cats was not significantly different from that observed in control cats. Significant association was not apparent between positive BHV-4 IFA test results and clinical diagnosis, abnormal laboratory findings, or cat age. However, the number of male cats with BHV-4 IFA titer was significantly (P less than 0.02, chi 2 test) greater than that of female cats. Detection of BHV-4 antibodies in approximately 30% of affected and control cats indicates prior virus exposure. Further investigations are warranted to clarify the specific role of BHV-4 in cats with naturally acquired LUTD.

Feline renal ultrasonography: quantitative analyses of imaged anatomy.

Maximal kidney dimensions from serial ultrasonograms were measured in 10 healthy cats. Because clinical ultrasonographic examination is often performed in conjunction with excretory urography, the effect of radiographic contrast medium-induced diuresis on dimensional change also was evaluated. Although a slight, statistically significant increase in size was observed (compared with kidneys scanned without contrast medium), this increase could not be detected on the basis of visual image evaluation alone.

Malignant hyperthermia susceptibility: cardiac histomorphometry of dogs and young and market-weight swine.

The defect causing malignant hyperthermia has been proposed to involve cardiac as well as skeletal muscle. We tested the hypothesis that histomorphometric parameters for ventricular wall from malignant hyperthermia-susceptible swine and dogs were abnormal. Hearts were obtained from: mature dogs, age- and weight-matched young swine (89 +/- 15 days, 30 +/- 3 kg); and market-weight swine (102 +/- 10 kg). Using light microscopy, estimates were made for muscle nuclear dimensions and the volume-fraction of nuclei, sarcoplasm, blood vessels, and interstitial space. Cardiac maturation in both MH and normal swine was accompanied by decreased myocyte volume-fraction due to decreased nuclear volume-fraction and increased interstitial space volume-fraction. Sarcoplasm and vasculature volume-fraction were unchanged after maturation. Nuclear volume-fraction was slightly greater (p less than 0.05) in the right ventricle than the left for malignant hyperthermia and normal swine. Myocyte nuclear dimensions were generally similar among animals. Dogs and the oldest group of swine were not significantly different. Myocytes of all swine contained multiple nuclei, closely spaced in rows of 2 to 12. In contrast, most myocytes of mature dogs apparently contained one or two nuclei. Histomorphometric values were not significantly different between normal and malignant hyperthermia young swine and dogs. However, within the market-weight swine, volume-fraction for malignant hyperthermia myocytes and myocyte nuclei was decreased and interstitial space was increased compared to normal.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Teratogenic effect of acetohydroxamic acid in clinically normal beagles.

Acetohydroxamic acid (AHA), a potent urease inhibitor used for treatment of infection-induced struvite urolithiasis, was teratogenic after administration of 25 mg of AHA/kg of body weight/day orally to 5 clinically normal Beagles from the onset of proestrus until parturition. Thirty pups exposed to AHA in utero developed anomalies of the skeletal system, heart, and ventral midline. Cardiac anomalies included atrial septal defects (20%), ventricular septal defects (3%), and atrial and ventricular septal defects (3%). Skeletal anomalies included coccygeal hemivertebrae and fused coccygeal vertebrae (50%), supernumerary vertebrae (67%), supernumerary ribs (50%), duplicated sternebrae (3%), and lumbar hemivertebrae (3%). Defects of the ventral midline of the abdominal wall occurred in 20% of AHA-exposed pups. Other abnormalities included retarded growth, high neonatal mortality, and a decreased number of circulating RBC, compared with those in 30 control pups born to 5 Beagles given a placebo. Adverse effects of AHA in pregnant Beagles were limited to morphologic alterations (Howell-Jolly bodies, spherocytes, and target cells) in a small number of circulating RBC. Slight neutrophilic leukocytosis and monocytosis occurred between 0 and 30 days of pregnancy in dogs given AHA, compared with those in controls. Seemingly, AHA did not influence fertility, conception rate, or length of gestation.

Immunohistochemical morphometry of pancreatic endocrine cells in diabetic, normoglycaemic glucose-intolerant and normal cats.

The anatomical distribution and volume fractions of pancreatic A cells (glucagon), B cells (insulin) and D cells (somatostatin) were evaluated by an immunoperoxidase technique in 6 diabetic cats, 6 normoglycaemic glucose-intolerant cats and 6 normal control cats. Islets lacking A cells were observed in some sections from the right lobe of the pancreas which correlated with a significantly lower A cell volume fraction in the right pancreatic lobe. Endocrine cell volume fractions in normoglycaemic glucose-intolerant cats were not significantly different from controls. Thus, a reduction in B cell volume fraction was not necessary for the occurrence of impaired glucose tolerance in these cats. However, the reduction of B cell volume fraction in the 2 normoglycaemic glucose-intolerant cats with insular amyloidosis may in part explain the more severely impaired glucose tolerance previously observed in these cats. Insular amyloidosis in our feline diabetics, as in human type II diabetics, was associated with a significant decrease in A and B cell volume fractions. In both human type II and feline diabetes mellitus, however, the reduction in B cell mass does not appear sufficient alone to lead to diabetes mellitus. Therefore, amyloid replacement of functional endocrine cells does not appear to be the primary diabetogenic event in feline diabetes mellitus, but may contribute to progression of the condition due to loss of functional B cell reserves. We thus postulate that a B cell defect precedes deposition of islet amyloid and that these amyloid deposits may thus provide an important biochemical clue to specific B cell derangements occurring in adult-onset diabetics.

Porcine malignant hyperthermia: cell injury enhances halothane sensitivity of biopsies.

A possible relationship between muscle cell injury or deterioration and enhanced halothane sensitivity was studied by monitoring mechanical responses of skeletal muscles from normal pigs and pigs susceptible to malignant hyperthermia (MH). Increased time postbiopsy and decreased maximum control tetanic tension both correlated significantly with enhanced sensitivity to halothane. In both normal and MH-susceptible (MHS) muscles, greater halothane sensitivity was observed in cut cell than in intact cell bundles and in low tetanic tension as compared to high tension preparations. Subsequent to halothane exposure, twitches of high tension (greater than or equal 1.75 kg . cm-2) intact bundles of both normal and MHS muscles were potentiated. Tetani of normal intact bundles were not altered, whereas those of MHS bundles were depressed after halothane exposure. Control twitch-to-tetanus ratios (twitch ratios) were higher in MHS (0.23) than in normal (0.12) intact bundles. According to discriminant analysis, the best distinction between normal and MHS muscles, either cut or intact, was obtained by comparing halothane-induced changes in tetanic tension and control twitch ratios.

Chondroclasts in fusarium-induced tibial dyschondroplasia. A histomorphometric study.

The role of chondroclasts in the pathogenesis of Fusarium roseum-induced tibial dyschondroplasia (TD) was examined in a histomorphometric study. TD developed rapidly in broiler chickens placed at 1 day of age on rations containing either 3% (Experiment 1) or 2% (Experiment 2) F roseum cultures. In Experiment 1 the frequency of TD in birds killed at 4 weeks of age was 90%. In Experiment 2, birds were killed at intervals from 4 days until 4 weeks of age. By 1 week of age, 70% of birds examined had characteristic accumulations of prehypertrophic cartilage at the proximal tibial physis, and the frequency of TD in 4-week-old birds was 80%. Sections of hypertrophic cartilage from F roseum-fed and control birds from both experiments were examined for determination of the volume density of chondroclasts along the vascular channel boundary. Chondroclast density was consistently lower in F roseum-fed than in control birds, but the difference was significant only at 4 weeks of age. The fact that gross lesions were evident before a significant decrease in chondroclast density occurred indicates that a decrease in the density of chondroclasts was not an essential factor in the accumulation of cartilage characteristic of TD.

Immunocytochemical localization of serotonin in the rat periaqueductal gray: a quantitative light and electron microscopic study.

The distribution of serotonin-like immunoreactivity in five regions of the rodent midbrain periaqueductal gray (PAG) was studied by using light and electron microscopic immunohistochemistry in combination with quantitative analysis. Light microscopic analysis revealed the presence of serotonin-like immunoreactive cell bodies located in the ventrolateral and ventromedial regions of the caudal PAG and serotonin-like immunoreactive processes throughout the PAG. Ultrastructural analysis showed dendritic profiles that stained positively for serotonin primarily in ventral regions, although an occasional profile was seen dorsally. Numerous synaptic contacts between unstained axon terminals and ventral dendritic profiles were seen. Axonal profiles that contained reaction product were identified throughout the PAG, but were rarely observed to make any type of specialized contact. Ultrastructural quantification of serotonin-like immunoreactive processes indicated that the highest volume fraction of serotonin immunoreactivity occurred caudoventrally where stained processes constituted 2.6% of the neuropil volume. Rostroventrally stained processes constituted only 0.14% of the neuropil volume at the level of the posterior commissure. By contrast the amount of serotonin-like immunoreactivity found dorsally remained relatively constant at all rostrocaudal levels. Analysis of serotonin staining among PAG regions demonstrated the lowest overall volume fraction in the dorsal region and the highest overall volume fraction in the ventromedial region. No significant differences were observed between medial and lateral regions. A comparison of the results of light microscopic quantitative analysis of serotoninergic processes with electron microscopic quantitative analysis indicated that both techniques produce comparable results.

Increased vascular density associated with lesions of canine globoid leukodystrophy.

Two control dogs and 2 dogs that had globoid cell leukodystrophy (GLD) were studied to document vascular alterations associated with the leukodystrophic lesion. Spinal white matter was sampled by transverse and frontal planes of section from dorsal and ventral halves of the lateral funiculus of five spinal segments. Vessel profiles were classified as capillaries or larger vessels. GLD lesion was associated with an increase in capillary mean diameter. Vascular density, estimated by profiles per area, was compared in affected and control tissues. Capillary density was not significantly different, but the density of larger vessels was increased in proportion to the extent of GLD lesion. The increased density is presumed to be the result of lengthening or proliferation of vessels which had normal density prior to lesion formation.

Muscarinic cholinergic receptors in the rat deep cerebellar nuclei: a quantitative autoradiographic study.

The distribution of muscarinic cholinergic receptors within the rat deep cerebellar nuclei was analyzed using in vitro receptor binding of [3H]quinuclidinylbenzilate (QNB) in conjunction with autoradiography. The highest density of QNB binding sites occurred in the lateral cerebellar (dentate) nucleus. Interpositus nuclei displayed an intermediate density of muscarinic cholinergic binding sites with the posterior interpositus nucleus demonstrating higher binding than the anterior nucleus. The fastigial (medial) cerebellar nucleus exhibited the lowest levels of QNB binding among the four cerebellar nuclei. These results indicate that muscarinic cholinergic receptors are present in the deep cerebellar nuclei and that differences in receptor density occur among the four nuclear groups.

Evaluation of a calculolytic diet in female dogs with induced struvite urolithiasis.

The calculolytic effect of a diet designed to reduce the urine concentration of urea, P, and Mg was evaluated in female Beagles with induced urease-positive urinary tract infections and struvite urolithiasis and in female Beagles with induced sterile struvite urolithiasis. The reduced-protein calculolytic diet induced urolith dissolution in 5 of 6 infected dogs with struvite urolithiasis in 2 to 5 months (means = 14.4 weeks). At the end of 6 months, uroliths in comparable control dogs fed a maintenance diet were 5 times larger and 14 times heavier than at the beginning of the study. The calculolytic diet induced urolith dissolution in 6 of 6 noninfected dogs with struvite uroliths in 2 to 4 weeks (means = 3.3 weeks). Four uroliths in noninfected dogs fed the maintenance diet dissolved over a period of 2 to 5 months (means = 14 weeks). Urolith dissolution in dogs fed the calculolytic diet was associated with diet-induced diuresis, reduction in urine pH, reduction in urine concentration of urea ammonia, P, and Mg, and increase in urine titratable acidity. Consumption of the calculolytic diet was also associated with significant (P = less than 0.01) reduction in the serum concentration of urea and albumin and a significant (P = less than 0.01) increase in serum hepatic alkaline phosphatase activity. Concomitant occurrence of hydropic degeneration of hepatocytes indicated that these biochemical and morphologic changes were associated with dietary protein restriction.

Morphometry of the male feline pelvic urethra.

The pelvic urethra and bladder of the male cat were examined for comparison with those of the male dog which have been previously studied. Morphometric data were generated and analyzed statistically to provide an objective basis for comparing regions and species. Tissue quantities in the body of the bladder were significantly different from the vesical neck. The vesical neck of the cat was significantly different from the canine vesical neck. The smooth muscle sphincter in the cat was better developed than in the dog, and the cat had longitudinal smooth muscle arranged to actively open the sphincter. The feline urethra had relatively more elastic fibers and less stratum cavernosum than the canine urethra. Since canine and feline urethrae are structurally different, physiological interpretations based on one of the species should not be applied indiscriminantly to the other.