Nivalenol and deoxynivalenol affect rat intestinal epithelial cells: a concentration related study.

The integrity of the gastrointestinal tract represents a crucial first level defence against ingested toxins. Among them, Nivalenol is a trichotecenes mycotoxin frequently found on cereals and processed grains; when it contaminates human food and animal feed it is often associated with another widespread contaminant, Deoxynivalenol. Following their ingestion, intestinal epithelial cells are exposed to concentrations of these trichothecenes high enough to cause mycotoxicosis. In this study we have investigated the effects of Nivalenol and Deoxynivalenol on intestinal cells in an in vitro model system utilizing the non-tumorigenic rat intestinal epithelial cell line IEC-6. Both Nivalenol and Deoxynivalenol (5-80 µM) significantly affected IEC-6 viability through a pro-apoptotic process which mainly involved the following steps: (i) Bax induction; (ii) Bcl-2 inhibition, and (iii) caspase-3 activation. Moreover, treatment with Nivalenol produced a significant cell cycle arrest of IEC-6 cells, primarily at the G(0)/G(1) interphase and in the S phase, with a concomitant reduction in the fraction of cells in G(2). Interestingly, when administered at lower concentrations (0.1-2.5 µM), both Nivalenol and Deoxynivalenol affected epithelial cell migration (restitution), representing the initial step in gastrointestinal wound healing in the gut. This reduced motility was associated with significant remodelling of the actin cytoskeleton, and changes in expression of connexin-43 and focal adhesion kinase. The concentration range of Nivalenol or Deoxynivalenol we have tested is comparable with the mean estimated daily intake of consumers eating contaminated food. Thus, our results further highlight the risks associated with intake of even low levels of these toxins.

Annexin A1 N-terminal derived peptide Ac2-26 stimulates fibroblast migration in high glucose conditions.

Deficient wound healing in diabetic patients is very frequent, but the cellular and molecular causes are poorly defined. In this study, we have evaluated whether Annexin A1 derived peptide Ac2-26 stimulates fibroblast migration in high glucose conditions. Using normal human skin fibroblasts WS1 in low glucose (LG) or high glucose (HG) we observed the enrichment of Annexin A1 protein at cell movement structures like lamellipodial extrusions and interestingly, a significant decrease in levels of the protein in HG conditions. The analysis of the translocation of Annexin A1 to cell membrane showed lower levels of Annexin A1 in both membrane pool and supernatants of WS1 cells treated with HG. Wound-healing assays using cell line transfected with Annexin A1 siRNAs indicated a slowing down in migration speed of cells suggesting that Annexin A1 has a role in the migration of WS1 cells. In order to analyze the role of extracellular Annexin A1 in cell migration, we have performed wound-healing assays using Ac2-26 showing that peptide was able to increase fibroblast cell migration in HG conditions. Experiments on the mobilization of intracellular calcium and analysis of p-ERK expression confirmed the activity of the FPR1 following stimulation with the peptide Ac2-26. A wound-healing assay on WS1 cells in the presence of the FPR agonist fMLP, of the FPR antagonist CsH and in the presence of Ac2-26 indicated that Annexin A1 influences fibroblast cell migration under HG conditions acting through FPR receptors whose expression was slightly increased in HG. In conclusion, these data demonstrate that (i) Annexin A1 is involved in migration of WS1 cells, through interaction with FPRs; (ii) N- terminal peptide of Annexin A1 Ac2-26 is able to stimulate direct migration of WS1 cells in high glucose treatment possibly due to the increased receptor expression observed in hyperglycemia conditions.

Chemical proteomics reveals bolinaquinone as a clathrin-mediated endocytosis inhibitor.

The emerging field of mass spectrometry-based chemical proteomics provides a powerful instrument in the target discovery of bioactive small-molecules, such as drugs or natural products. The identification of their macromolecular targets is required for a comprehensive understanding of their bio-pharmacological role and for unraveling their mechanism of action. We report the application of a chemical proteomics approach to the analysis of the cellular interactome of the marine metabolite bolinaquinone (BLQ). BLQ was linked to an opportune α,ω-diamino polyethylene glycol chain and then immobilized on a matrix support. The modified beads were then used as a bait for fishing the potential partners of BLQ in a THP-1 macrophage cell lysate. Surprisingly, we identified clathrin, a protein involved in the cell internalization of proteins, viruses and other biologically relevant macromolecules, as a specific and major BLQ partner. In addition, we verified the biochemical role of BLQ testing its ability to inhibit the clathrin-mediated endocytosis of albumin. This finding indicates BLQ as a new biotechnological tool for cell endocytosis studies and paves the way to further investigation on its potential role in modulating internalization process.

Role of Annexin A1 in mouse myoblast cell differentiation.

Annexin A1 (ANXA1) is a calcium- and phospholipid-binding protein involved in a broad range of cellular events. This study used molecular and microscopy approaches to explore the role of ANXA1 in mouse myoblast C2C12 cell differentiation. We report that ANXA1 expression increases during differentiation and that the down-regulation of ANXA1 significantly inhibits the differentiation process. ANXA1 is expressed in vivo in both quiescent and activated satellite cells and is highly localized in the cells that migrate in the lumen of regenerating fibers after an acute injury. Endogenous ANXA1 co-localizes with actin fibers at the protruding ends of undifferentiated but not differentiated cells suggesting a role of the protein in cell migration. Furthermore, ANXA1 neutralizing antibody reduces MyHC expression, decreases myotube formation and significantly inhibits cell migration. The data reported here suggest for the first time that ANXA1 plays a role in myogenic differentiation.

Histone deacetylase inhibitor FR235222 sensitizes human prostate adenocarcinoma cells to apoptosis through up-regulation of Annexin A1.

The reduction of Annexin A1 (ANXA1) expression, commonly associated with prostate cancer, could be due to elevated activity of histone deacetylases. We have investigated the mechanisms of apoptotic effects of FR235222 in LNCaP cell line and the role of ANXA1. We showed that treatment with FR235222 induced apoptosis through a caspase-dependent mechanism. FR235222 was able to increase the protein levels of ANXA1 at a transcriptional level. Finally, the inhibition of ANXA1 expression by siRNA leads to a partial reduction of FR235222-induced apoptosis. The results suggest that elevated activity of HDACs is responsible for the reduction of ANXA1, indicating that ANXA1 expression is a contributing factor to the proapoptotic effects in prostate cancer.

Copper binds the carboxy-terminus of trefoil protein 1 (TFF1), favoring its homodimerization and motogenic activity.

Trefoil protein 1 (TFF1) is a small secreted protein belonging to the trefoil factor family of proteins, that are present mainly in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and play pivotal roles as motogenic factors in epithelial restitution, cell motility, and other incompletely characterized biological processes. We previously reported the up-regulation of TFF1 gene in copper deficient rats and the unexpected property of the peptide to selectively bind copper. Following the previous evidence, here we report the characterization of the copper binding site by fluorescence quenching spectroscopy and mass spectrometric analyses. We demonstrate that Cys58 and at least three Glu surrounding residues surrounding it, are essential to efficiently bind copper. Moreover, copper binding promotes the TFF1 homodimerization, thus increasing its motogenic activity in in vitro wound healing assays. Copper levels could then modulate the TFF1 functions in the GI tract, as well as its postulated role in cancer progression and invasion.

Lack of Mid1, the mouse ortholog of the Opitz syndrome gene, causes abnormal development of the anterior cerebellar vermis.

Opitz G/BBB syndrome (OS) is a genetic disorder characterized by midline developmental defects. Male patients with the X-linked form of OS, caused by loss-of-function mutations in the MID1 gene, show high variability of the clinical signs. MID1 encodes a ubiquitin ligase that controls phosphatase 2A, but its role in the pathogenesis of the disease is still unclear. Here, we report a mouse line carrying a nonfunctional ortholog of the human MID1 gene, Mid1. Mid1-null mice show the brain anatomical defect observed in patients (i.e., hypoplasia of the anterior portion of the medial cerebellum, the vermis). We found that the presence of this defect correlates with motor coordination and procedural and nonassociative learning impairments. The defect is limited to the most anterior lobes of the vermis, the region of the developing cerebellum adjacent to the dorsal midbrain. Analyses at midgestation reveal that lack of Mid1 causes the shortening of the posterior dorsal midbrain, the rostralization of the midbrain/cerebellum boundary, and the downregulation of a key player in the development of this region, Fgf17. Thus, lack of Mid1 causes a misspecification of the midbrain/cerebellar boundary that results in an abnormal development of the most anterior cerebellar lobes. This animal model provides a tool for additional in vivo studies of the physiological and pathological role of the Mid1 gene and a system to investigate the development and function of anterior cerebellar domains.

The co-chaperone BAG3 interacts with the cytosolic chaperonin CCT: new hints for actin folding.

It has been recently hypothesized that BAG3 protein, a co-chaperone of Hsp70/Hsc70, is involved in the regulation of several cell processes, such as apoptosis, autophagy and cell motility. Following the identification of Hsc70/Hsp70, further BAG3 molecular partners such as PLC-gamma and HspB8 were likewise identified, thus contributing to the characterization of the mechanisms and the biological roles carried out by this versatile protein. By using a His-tagged BAG3 protein as bait, we fished out and identified the cytosolic chaperonin CCT, a new unreported BAG3 partner. The interaction between BAG3 and CCT was confirmed and characterized by co-immunoprecipitation experiments and surface plasmon resonance techniques. Furthermore, our analyses showed a slower CCT association and a faster dissociation with a truncated form of BAG3 containing the BAG domain, thus indicating that other protein regions are essential for a high-affinity interaction. ATP or ADP does not seem to significantly influence the chaperonin binding to BAG3 protein. On the other hand, our experiments showed that BAG3 silencing by small interfering RNA slowed down cell migration and influence the availability of correctly folded monomeric actin, analyzed by DNAse I binding assays and latrunculin A depolymerization studies. To our knowledge, this is the first report showing a biologically relevant interaction between the chaperonin CCT and BAG3 protein, thus suggesting interesting involvement in the folding processes regulated by CCT.

Molecular bases of copper and iron deficiency-associated dyslipidemia: a microarray analysis of the rat intestinal transcriptome.

As essential cofactor in many proteins and redox enzymes, copper and iron are involved in a wide range of biological processes. Mild dietary deficiency of metals represents an underestimated problem for human health, because it does not cause clear signs and clinical symptoms, but it is associated to long-term deleterious effects in cardiovascular system and alterations in lipid metabolism. The aim of this work was to study the biological processes significantly affected by mild dietary deficiency of both metals in rat intestine, in order to better understand the molecular bases of the systemic metabolic alterations, as hypercholesterolemia and hypertriglyceridemia observed in copper-deficient rats. A gene-microarray differential analysis was carried out on the intestinal transcriptome of copper- and iron-deficient rats, thus highlighting the biological processes significantly modulated by the dietary restrictions. The gene array analysis showed a down-regulation of genes involved in mitochondrial and peroxisomal fatty acids beta-oxidation and an up-regulation of genes involved in plasmatic cholesterol transport (apoprotein E and lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase) in copper deficiency. Furthermore, a severe down-regulation of ApoH was pointed out in iron-deficient animals.

Genomic analysis of the TRIM family reveals two groups of genes with distinct evolutionary properties.

BACKGROUND: The TRIM family is composed of multi-domain proteins that display the Tripartite Motif (RING, B-box and Coiled-coil) that can be associated with a C-terminal domain. TRIM genes are involved in ubiquitylation and are implicated in a variety of human pathologies, from Mendelian inherited disorders to cancer, and are also involved in cellular response to viral infection. RESULTS: Here we defined the entire human TRIM family and also identified the TRIM sets of other vertebrate (mouse, rat, dog, cow, chicken, tetraodon, and zebrafish) and invertebrate species (fruitfly, worm, and ciona). By means of comparative analyses we found that, after assembly of the tripartite motif in an early metazoan ancestor, few types of C-terminal domains have been associated with this module during evolution and that an important increase in TRIM number occurred in vertebrate species concomitantly with the addition of the SPRY domain. We showed that the human TRIM family is split into two groups that differ in domain structure, genomic organization and evolutionary properties. Group 1 members present a variety of C-terminal domains, are highly conserved among vertebrate species, and are represented in invertebrates. Conversely, group 2 is absent in invertebrates, is characterized by the presence of a C-terminal SPRY domain and presents unique sets of genes in each mammal examined. The generation of independent sets of group 2 genes is also evident in the other vertebrate species. Comparing the murine and human TRIM sets, we found that group 1 and 2 genes evolve at different speeds and are subject to different selective pressures. CONCLUSION: We found that the TRIM family is composed of two groups of genes with distinct evolutionary properties. Group 2 is younger, highly dynamic, and might act as a reservoir to develop novel TRIM functions. Since some group 2 genes are implicated in innate immune response, their evolutionary features may account for species-specific battles against viral infection.

MID1 mutations in patients with X-linked Opitz G/BBB syndrome.

Mutations in the MID1 gene are responsible for the X-linked form of Opitz G/BBB syndrome (OS), a disorder that affects the development of midline structures. OS is characterized by hypertelorism, hypospadias, laryngo-tracheo-esophageal (LTE) abnormalities, and additional midline defects. Cardiac, anal, and neurological defects are also present. The expressivity of OS is highly variable, even within the same family. We reviewed all the MID1 mutations reported so far, in both familial and sporadic cases. The mutations are scattered along the entire length of the gene and consist of missense and nonsense mutations, insertions and deletions, either in-frame or causing frameshifts, and deletions of either single exons or the entire MID1 coding region. The variety of described mutations and the lack of a strict genotype-phenotype correlation confirm the previous suggestion of the OS phenotype being caused by a loss-of-function mechanism. However, although a specific mutation cannot entirely account for the observed phenotype, we observed preferential association between some types of mutation and specific clinical manifestations, e.g., brain anatomical defects and truncating mutations. This may suggest that the pathogenetic mechanism underlying the OS phenotype is more complex and may vary among the affected organs.

Copper-binding activity of Trefoil factor 1 (TFF1): a new perspective in the study of the multifunctional roles of TFFs.

Trefoil factors (TFFs) are gastrointestinal peptides playing an essential role in the epithelial restitution. Among the three known TFF peptides, TFF1 is characterized by three disulfide bonds producing a compact globular structure and an extended and disordered tail formed by amino- and carboxy-termini. The presence of a cysteine surrounded by several negatively charged residues in this region of the protein, highly conserved in different species, suggests the possible formation of a metal-binding site. Affinity chromatography and mass spectrometric analyses allowed us to demonstrate a selective binding affinity of TFF1 for copper. The binding induces conformational changes in the tertiary structure as demonstrated by circular dichroism experiments, while limited proteolysis revealed an altered access to the cleavage sites in the amino- and carboxy-termini. The results of this study reveal a new property of TFF1 and suggest that copper could influence its biological activities by interfering with the dimerization of the peptide and/or the interaction with mucins or putative TFF receptors.

A mutation of beta -actin that alters depolymerization dynamics is associated with autosomal dominant developmental malformations, deafness, and dystonia.

Actin, one of the major filamentous cytoskeletal molecules, is involved in a variety of cellular functions. Whereas an association between muscle actin mutations and skeletal and cardiac myopathies has been well documented, reports of human disease arising from mutations of nonmuscle actin genes have been rare. We have identified a missense point mutation in the gene coding for beta -actin that results in an arginine-to-tryptophan substitution at position 183. The disease phenotype includes developmental midline malformations, sensory hearing loss, and a delayed-onset generalized dystonia syndrome in monozygotic twins. Cellular studies of a lymphoblastoid cell line obtained from an affected patient demonstrated morphological abnormalities of the actin cytoskeleton and altered actin depolymerization dynamics in response to latrunculin A, an actin monomer-sequestering drug. Resistance to latrunculin A was also observed in NIH 3T3 cells expressing the mutant actin. These findings suggest that mutations in nonmuscle actins may be associated with a broad spectrum of developmental malformations and/or neurological abnormalities such as dystonia.

Mig12, a novel Opitz syndrome gene product partner, is expressed in the embryonic ventral midline and co-operates with Mid1 to bundle and stabilize microtubules.

BACKGROUND: Opitz G/BBB syndrome is a genetic disorder characterized by developmental midline abnormalities, such as hypertelorism, cleft palate, and hypospadias. The gene responsible for the X-linked form of this disease, MID1, encodes a TRIM/RBCC protein that is anchored to the microtubules. The association of Mid1 with the cytoskeleton is regulated by dynamic phosphorylation, through the interaction with the alpha4 subunit of phosphatase 2A (PP2A). Mid1 acts as an E3 ubiquitin ligase, regulating PP2A degradation on microtubules. RESULTS: In spite of these findings, the biological role exerted by the Opitz syndrome gene product is still unclear and the presence of other potential interacting moieties in the Mid1 structure prompted us to search for additional cellular partners. Through a yeast two-hybrid screening approach, we identified a novel gene, MIG12, whose protein product interacts with Mid1. We confirmed by immunoprecipitation that this interaction occurs in vivo and that it is mediated by the Mid1 coiled-coil domain. We found that Mig12 is mainly expressed in the neuroepithelial midline, urogenital apparatus, and digits during embryonic development. Transiently expressed Mig12 is found diffusely in both nucleus and cytoplasm, although it is enriched in the microtubule-organizing center region. Consistently with this, endogenous Mig12 protein is partially detected in the polymerized tubulin fraction after microtubule stabilization. When co-transfected with Mid1, Mig12 is massively recruited to thick filamentous structures composed of tubulin. These microtubule bundles are resistant to high doses of depolymerizing agents and are composed of acetylated tubulin, thus representing stabilized microtubule arrays. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that Mig12 co-operates with Mid1 to stabilize microtubules. Mid1-Mig12 complexes might be implicated in cellular processes that require microtubule stabilization, such as cell division and migration. Impairment in Mig12/Mid1-mediated microtubule dynamic regulation, during the development of embryonic midline, may cause the pathological signs observed in Opitz syndrome patients.