Neurogenic Background for Emotional Stress-Associated Hypertension.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The response to natural stressors involves both cardiac stimulation and vascular changes, primarily triggered by increases in sympathetic activity. These effects lead to immediate flow redistribution that provides metabolic support to priority target organs combined with other key physiological responses and cognitive strategies, against stressor challenges. This extremely well-orchestrated response that was developed over millions of years of evolution is presently being challenged, over a short period of time. In this short review, we discuss the neurogenic background for the origin of emotional stress-induced hypertension, focusing on sympathetic pathways from related findings in humans and animals. RECENT FINDINGS: The urban environment offers a variety of psychological stressors. Real or anticipatory, emotional stressors may increase baseline sympathetic activity. From routine day-to-day traffic stress to job-related anxiety, chronic or abnormal increases in sympathetic activity caused by emotional stressors can lead to cardiovascular events, including cardiac arrhythmias, increases in blood pressure and even sudden death. Among the various alterations proposed, chronic stress could modify neuroglial circuits or compromise antioxidant systems that may alter the responsiveness of neurons to stressful stimuli. These phenomena lead to increases in sympathetic activity, hypertension and consequent cardiovascular diseases. The link between anxiety, emotional stress, and hypertension may result from an altered neuronal firing rate in central pathways controlling sympathetic activity. The participation of neuroglial and oxidative mechanisms in altered neuronal function is primarily involved in enhanced sympathetic outflow. The significance of the insular cortex-dorsomedial hypothalamic pathway in the evolution of enhanced overall sympathetic outflow is discussed.

Are hemoglobin-derived peptides involved in the neuropsychiatric symptoms caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection?

Follow-up of patients affected by COVID-19 has unveiled remarkable findings. Among the several sequelae caused by SARS-CoV-2 viral infection, it is particularly noteworthy that patients are prone to developing depression, anxiety, cognitive disorders, and dementia as part of the post-COVID-19 syndrome. The multisystem aspects of this disease suggest that multiple mechanisms may converge towards post-infection clinical manifestations. The literature provides mechanistic hypotheses related to changes in classical neurotransmission evoked by SARS-CoV-2 infection; nonetheless, the interaction of peripherally originated classical and non-canonic peptidergic systems may play a putative role in this neuropathology. A wealth of robust findings shows that hemoglobin-derived peptides are able to control cognition, memory, anxiety, and depression through different mechanisms. Early erythrocytic death is found during COVID-19, which would cause excess production of hemoglobin-derived peptides. Following from this premise, the present review sheds light on a possible involvement of hemoglobin-derived molecules in the COVID-19 pathophysiology by fostering neuroscientific evidence that supports the contribution of this non-canonic peptidergic pathway. This rationale may broaden knowledge beyond the currently available data, motivating further studies in the field and paving ways for novel laboratory tests and clinical approaches.

Are hemoglobin-derived peptides involved in the neuropsychiatric symptoms caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection?

Follow-up of patients affected by COVID-19 has unveiled remarkable findings. Among the several sequelae caused by SARS-CoV-2 viral infection, it is particularly noteworthy that patients are prone to developing depression, anxiety, cognitive disorders, and dementia as part of the post-COVID-19 syndrome. The multisystem aspects of this disease suggest that multiple mechanisms may converge towards post-infection clinical manifestations. The literature provides mechanistic hypotheses related to changes in classical neurotransmission evoked by SARS-CoV-2 infection; nonetheless, the interaction of peripherally originated classical and non-canonic peptidergic systems may play a putative role in this neuropathology. A wealth of robust findings shows that hemoglobin-derived peptides are able to control cognition, memory, anxiety, and depression through different mechanisms. Early erythrocytic death is found during COVID-19, which would cause excess production of hemoglobin-derived peptides. Following from this premise, the present review sheds light on a possible involvement of hemoglobin-derived molecules in the COVID-19 pathophysiology by fostering neuroscientific evidence that supports the contribution of this non-canonic peptidergic pathway. This rationale may broaden knowledge beyond the currently available data, motivating further studies in the field and paving ways for novel laboratory tests and clinical approaches.

Peptide fragments of bradykinin show unexpected biological activity not mediated by B1 or B2 receptors.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Bradykinin (BK-(1-9)) is an endogenous nonapeptide involved in multiple physiological and pathological processes. Peptide fragments of bradykinin are believed to be biologically inactive. We have now tested the two major peptide fragments of bradykinin in human and animals. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: BK peptides were quantified by MS in male rats. NO release was quantified from human, mouse and rat cells loaded with DAF-FM. Rat aortic rings were used to measure vascular reactivity. Changes in BP and HR were measured in conscious male rats. To evaluate pro-inflammatory effects both vascular permeability and nociception were measured in adult mice. KEY RESULTS: BK-(1-7) and BK-(1-5) are produced in vivo from BK-(1-9). Both peptides induced NO production in all cell types tested. However, unlike BK-(1-9), NO production elicited by BK-(1-7) or BK-(1-5) was not inhibited by B1 or B2 receptor antagonists. BK-(1-7) and BK-(1-5) induced concentration-dependent vasorelaxation of aortic rings, without involvement of B1 or B2 receptors. Intravenous or intra-arterial administration of BK-(1-7) or BK-(1-5) induced similar hypotensive response in vivo. Nociceptive responses of BK-(1-7) and BK-(1-5) were reduced compared to BK-(1-9), and no increase in vascular permeability was observed for BK-(1-9) fragments. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: BK-(1-7) and BK-(1-5) are endogenous peptides present in plasma. BK-related peptide fragments show biological activity, not mediated by B1 or B2 receptors. These BK fragments could constitute new, active components of the kallikrein-kinin system.

Involvement of the Renin-Angiotensin System in Stress: State of the Art and Research Perspectives.

BACKGROUND: Along with other canonical systems, the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) has shown important roles in stress. This system is a complex regulatory proteolytic cascade composed of various enzymes, peptides, and receptors. Besides the classical (ACE/Ang II/AT1 receptor) and the counter-regulatory (ACE2/Ang-(1-7)/Mas receptor) RAS axes, evidence indicates that nonclassical components, including Ang III, Ang IV, AT2 and AT4, can also be involved in stress. OBJECTIVE AND METHODS: This comprehensive review summarizes the current knowledge on the participation of RAS components in different adverse environmental stimuli stressors, including air jet stress, cage switch stress, restraint stress, chronic unpredictable stress, neonatal isolation stress, and post-traumatic stress disorder. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: In general, activation of the classical RAS axis potentiates stress-related cardiovascular, endocrine, and behavioral responses, while the stimulation of the counter-regulatory axis attenuates these effects. Pharmacological modulation in both axes is optimistic, offering promising perspectives for stress-related disorders treatment. In this regard, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers are potential candidates already available since they block the classical axis, activate the counter-regulatory axis, and are safe and efficient drugs.

Alamandine but not angiotensin-(1-7) produces cardiovascular effects at the rostral insular cortex.

Experiments aimed to evaluate the tissue distribution of Mas-related G protein-coupled receptor D (MrgD) revealed the presence of immunoreactivity for the MrgD protein in the rostral insular cortex (rIC), an important area for autonomic and cardiovascular control. To investigate the relevance of this finding, we evaluated the cardiovascular effects produced by the endogenous ligand of MrgD, alamandine, in this brain region. Mean arterial pressure (MAP), heart rate (HR), and renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA) were recorded in urethane anesthetized rats. Unilateral microinjection of equimolar doses of alamandine (40 pmol/100 nL), angiotensin-(1-7), angiotensin II, angiotensin A, and Mas/MrgD antagonist d-Pro7-Ang-1-7 (50 pmol/100 nL), Mas antagonist A779 (100 pmol/100 nL), or vehicle (0.9% NaCl) were made in different rats (n = 4-6/group) into rIC. To verify the specificity of the region, a microinjection of alamandine was also performed into intermediate insular cortex (iIC). Microinjection of alamandine in rIC produced an increase in MAP (Δ = 15 ± 2 mmHg), HR (Δ = 36 ± 4 beats/min), and RSNA (Δ = 31 ± 4%), but was without effects at iIC. Strikingly, an equimolar dose of angiotensin-(1-7) at rIC did not produce any change in MAP, HR, and RSNA. Angiotensin II and angiotensin A produced only minor effects. Alamandine effects were not altered by A-779, a Mas antagonist, but were completely blocked by the Mas/MrgD antagonist d-Pro7-Ang-(1-7). Therefore, we have identified a brain region in which alamandine/MrgD receptor but not angiotensin-(1-7)/Mas could be involved in the modulation of cardiovascular-related neuronal activity. This observation also suggests that alamandine might possess unique effects unrelated to angiotensin-(1-7) in the brain.

Centrally acting antihypertensives change the psychogenic cardiovascular reactivity.

Clonidine (CL) and Rilmenidine (RI) are among the most frequently prescribed centrally acting antihypertensives. Here, we compared CL and RI effects on psychogenic cardiovascular reactivity to sonant, luminous, motosensory, and vibrotactile stimuli during neurogenic hypertension. The femoral artery and vein of Wistar (WT - normotensive) and spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) were catheterized before (24 h interval) i.p. injection of vehicle (NaCl 0.9%, control - CT group), CL (10 µg/kg), or RI (10 µg/kg) and acute exposure to luminous (5000 lm), sonant (75 dB sudden tap), motor (180° cage twist), and air-jet (10 L/min - restraint and vibrotactile). Findings showed that: (i) CL or RI reduced the arterial pressure of SHR, without affecting basal heart rate in WT and SHR; (ii) different stimuli evoked pressor and tachycardic responses; (iii) CL and RI reduced pressor response to sound; (iv) CL or RI reduced pressor responses to luminous stimulus without a change in peak tachycardia in SHR; (v) cage twist increased blood pressure in SHR, which was attenuated by CL or RI; (vi) air-jet increased pressure and heart rate; (vii) CL or RI attenuated the pressor responses to air-jet in SHR while RI reduced the chronotropic reactivity in both strains. Altogether, both antihypertensives relieved the psychogenic cardiovascular responses to different stimuli. The RI elicited higher cardioprotective effects through a reduction in air-jet-induced tachycardia.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 activator, DIZE in the basolateral amygdala attenuates the tachycardic response to acute stress by modulating glutamatergic tone.

The basolateral amygdala (BLA) is critical in the control of the sympathetic output during stress. Studies demonstrated the involvement of the renin-angiotensin system components in the BLA. Angiotensin-(1-7) [Ang-(1-7)], acting through Mas receptors, reduces stress effects. Considering that angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is the principal enzyme for the production of Ang-(1-7), here we evaluate the cardiovascular reactivity to acute stress after administration of the ACE2 activator, diminazene aceturate (DIZE) into the BLA. We also tested whether systemic treatment with DIZE could modify synaptic activity in the BLA and its effect directly on the expression of the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) in NG108 neurons in-vitro. Administration of DIZE into the BLA (200 pmol/100 nL) attenuated the tachycardia to stress (ΔHR, bpm: vehicle = 103 ± 17 vs DIZE = 49 ± 7 p = 0.018); this effect was inhibited by Ang-(1-7) antagonist, A-779 (ΔHR, bpm: DIZE = 49 ± 7 vs A-779 + DIZE = 100 ± 15 p = 0.04). Systemic treatment with DIZE attenuated the excitatory synaptic activity in the BLA (Frequency (Hz): vehicle = 2.9 ± 0.4 vs. DIZE =1.8 ± 0.3 p < 0.04). NG108 cells treated with DIZE demonstrated decreased expression of l subunit NMDAR-NR1 (NR1 expression (a.u): control = 0.534 ± 0.0593 vs. DIZE = 0.254 ± 0.0260) of NMDAR and increases of Mas receptors expression. These data demonstrate that DIZE attenuates the tachycardia evoked by acute stress. This effect results from a central action in the BLA involving activation of Mas receptors. The ACE2 activation via DIZE treatment attenuated the frequency of excitatory synaptic activity in the basolateral amygdala and this effect can be related with the decreases of the NMDAR-NR1 receptor expression.

Autonomic and cardiovascular consequences resulting from experimental hemorrhagic stroke in the left or right intermediate insular cortex in rats.

Damage to the insular cortex (IC) results in serious cardiovascular consequences and evidence indicates that the characteristics are lateralized. However, a study comparing the effects of focal experimental hemorrhage between IC sides was never performed. We compared the cardiovascular, autonomic and cardiac changes produced by focal experimental hemorrhage (ICH) into the left (L) or right (R) IC. Wistar rats were submitted to microinjection of autologous blood (ICH) or saline (n = 6 each side/group) into the R or L IC. Blood pressure (BP), heart rate (HR) and renal sympathetic activity (RSNA) were recorded. Measurements of calcium transient and sarcoplasmic Ca2+ ATPase expression in cardiomyocytes were performed. ICH increased baseline HR (Δ:L-ICH 452 ± 13 vs saline 407 ± 11 bpm; R-ICH 450 ± 7 vs saline 406 ± 8 bpm, P < 0.05) without changing BP. HR was restored to baseline levels after i.v. atenolol. Strikingly, ICH rats presented a reduced baseline RSNA (Δ:L-ICH 122 ± 4 vs saline 148 ± 11 spikes/s; R-ICH 112 ± 5 vs saline 148 ± 7 spikes/s, P < 0.05). After 24 h of ICH we observed a marked increase in cardiac ectopies and this number was greater after ICH R-IC. Heart weight, calcium amplitude and SERCA expression were reduced only in ICH R-IC. Focal stroke into IC can alter the cardiac and renal autonomic control. Damage to the R-IC produces a greater number of arrhythmias and changes in calcium dynamics in cardiac cells indicating that the cardiovascular consequences are hemisphere-dependent. These findings confirm asymmetry for cardiac autonomic control at the IC and help to understand the cardiac and renal implications observed after specific side cortical damage.

Renal sympathetic denervation for resistant hypertension: where do we stand after more than a decade / Denervação simpática renal para hipertensão resistente: situação depois de mais de uma década

Abstract Despite the current availability of safe and efficient drugs for treating hypertension, a substantial number of patients are drug-resistant hypertensives. Aiming this condition, a relatively new approach named catheter-based renal denervation was developed. We have now a clinically relevant time window to review the efficacy of renal denervation for treating this form of hypertension. This short review addresses the physiological contribution of renal sympathetic nerves for blood pressure control and discusses the pros and cons of renal denervation procedure for the treatment of resistant hypertension.

Resumo Em que pese a atual disponibilidade de medicamentos seguros e eficientes para o tratamento da hipertensão, um número significativo de pacientes sofre de hipertensão arterial resistente a tratamento medicamentoso. Em vista dessa condição, foi desenvolvida uma abordagem relativamente nova, denominada denervação renal por cateter. Dispomos atualmente de uma janela de tempo clinicamente relevante para analisar a eficácia da denervação renal no tratamento dessa modalidade de hipertensão. A presente revisão aborda a contribuição fisiológica dos nervos renais simpáticos no controle da pressão arterial e discute os prós e contras do procedimento de denervação renal no tratamento da hipertensão resistente.

Renal sympathetic denervation for resistant hypertension: where do we stand after more than a decade.

Despite the current availability of safe and efficient drugs for treating hypertension, a substantial number of patients are drug-resistant hypertensives. Aiming this condition, a relatively new approach named catheter-based renal denervation was developed. We have now a clinically relevant time window to review the efficacy of renal denervation for treating this form of hypertension. This short review addresses the physiological contribution of renal sympathetic nerves for blood pressure control and discusses the pros and cons of renal denervation procedure for the treatment of resistant hypertension.

Vagus nerve regulates the phagocytic and secretory activity of resident macrophages in the liver.

The gastrointestinal (GI) tract harbors commensal microorganisms as well as invasive bacteria, toxins and other pathogens and, therefore, plays a pivotal barrier and immunological role against pathogenic agents. The vagus nerve is an important regulator of the GI tract-associated immune system, having profound effects on inflammatory responses. Among GI tract organs, the liver is a key site of immune surveillance, as it has a large population of resident macrophages and receives the blood drained from the guts through the hepatic portal circulation. Although it is widely accepted that the hepatic tissue is a major target for vagus nerve fibers, the role of this neural circuit in liver immune functions is still poorly understood. Herein we used in vivo imaging techniques, including confocal microscopy and scintigraphy, to show that vagus nerve stimulation increases the phagocytosis activity by resident macrophages in the liver, even on the absence of an immune challenge. The activation of this neural circuit in a non-lethal model of sepsis optimized the removal of bacteria in the liver and resulted in the production of anti-inflammatory and pro-regenerative cytokines. Our findings provide new insights into the neural regulation of the immune system in the liver.

Cardiovascular reactivity to emotional stress: The hidden challenge for pets in the urbanized environment.

Emotional stress is currently considered an important risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. Experimental evidence clearly shows robust autonomic cardiovascular effects in animals exposed to stress stimuli. Considering the remarkable variability of stressors, the urban environment can pose a severe challenge to cardiovascular control. Interestingly, pet ownership is indicated as an efficient non-pharmacological therapy to attenuate stress effects that can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. However, the risk of cardiovascular diseases in pets themselves living in urban environment has not received attention it deserves. Here, we review the central mechanisms involved in the autonomic cardiovascular response to emotional stress. Next, we discuss experimental evidence showing the cardiovascular effects produced by emotional stressors in animals, aiming to establish a parallel with common urban stressors. Association of additional risk factors such as sedentarism, obesity and ambient temperature are also considered. Our aim is to identify and raise awareness of the risk of cardiovascular disease in pets exposed to quotidian emotional stressors present in the urban environment.

Stating asymmetry in neural pathways: methodological trends in autonomic neuroscience.

Aim: Many particularities concerning interhemispheric differences still need to be explored and unveiled. Functional and anatomical differential features found between left and right brain sides are best known as asymmetries and are consequence of the unilateral neuronal recruitment or predominance that is set to organize some function. The outflow from different neural pathways involved in the autonomic control of the cardiovascular system may route through asymmetrically relayed efferences (ipsilateral/lateralized and/or contralateral). In spite of this, the literature reporting on the role of central nuclei involved in the autonomic control is not always dedicated on these interhemispheric comparisons. Considering the recent reports demonstrating that asymmetries may set differential functional responses, it is worth checking differences between right and left sides of central regions. This review aims to inspire neuroscientists with the idea that studying the interhemispheric differences may deepen the understanding on several centrally controlled responses, with special regard to the autonomic functions underlying the cardiovascular regulation. Conclusions: Thus, an avenue of knowledge may unfold from a field of research that requires further exploration.

Ghrelin potentiates cardiac reactivity to stress by modulating sympathetic control and beta-adrenergic response.

Prior evidence indicates that ghrelin is involved in the integration of cardiovascular functions and behavioral responses. Ghrelin actions are mediated by the growth hormone secretagogue receptor subtype 1a (GHS-R1a), which is expressed in peripheral tissues and central areas involved in the control of cardiovascular responses to stress. AIMS: In the present study, we assessed the role of ghrelin - GHS-R1a axis in the cardiovascular reactivity to acute emotional stress in rats. MAIN METHODS AND KEY FINDINGS: Ghrelin potentiated the tachycardia evoked by restraint and air jet stresses, which was reverted by GHS-R1a blockade. Evaluation of the autonomic balance revealed that the sympathetic branch modulates the ghrelin-evoked positive chronotropy. In isolated hearts, the perfusion with ghrelin potentiated the contractile responses caused by stimulation of the beta-adrenergic receptor, without altering the amplitude of the responses evoked by acetylcholine. Experiments in isolated cardiomyocytes revealed that ghrelin amplified the increases in calcium transient changes evoked by isoproterenol. SIGNIFICANCE: Taken together, our results indicate that the Ghrelin-GHS-R1a axis potentiates the magnitude of stress-evoked tachycardia by modulating the autonomic nervous system and peripheral mechanisms, strongly relying on the activation of cardiac calcium transient and beta-adrenergic receptors.

GABA-containing liposomes: neuroscience applications and translational perspectives for targeting neurological diseases.

There are multiple challenges for neuropharmacology in the future. Undoubtedly, one of the greatest challenges is the development of strategies for pharmacological targeting of specific brain regions for treatment of diseases. GABA is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, and dysfunction of GABAergic mechanisms is associated with different neurological conditions. Liposomes are lipid vesicles that are able to encapsulate chemical compounds and are used for chronic drug delivery. This short review reports our experience with the development of liposomes for encapsulation and chronic delivery of GABA to sites within the brain. Directions for future research regarding the efficacy and practical use of GABA-containing liposomes for extended periods of time as well as understanding and targeting neurological conditions are discussed.

Asymmetric sympathetic output: The dorsomedial hypothalamus as a potential link between emotional stress and cardiac arrhythmias.

The autonomic response to emotional stress, while involving several target organs, includes an important increase in sympathetic drive to the heart. There is ample evidence that cardiac sympathetic innervation is lateralized, and asymmetric autonomic output to the heart during stress is postulated to be a causal factor that precipitates cardiac arrhythmias. Recent animal studies provided a new picture of the central pathways involved in the cardiac sympathetic response evoked by emotional stress, pointing out a key role for the region of dorsomedial hypothalamus. However, how much of this information can be extrapolated to humans? Analysis of human functional imaging data at rest or during emotional stress shows some consistency with the components that integrate these pathways, and attention must be given to the asymmetric activation of subcortical sites. In this short review, we will discuss related findings in humans and animals, aiming to understand the neurogenic background for the origin of emotional stress-induced cardiac arrhythmias.

Functional topography of cardiovascular regulation along the rostrocaudal axis of the rat posterior insular cortex.

Cardiovascular (CV) representation has been identified within the insular cortex (IC) and a lateralization of function previously suggested. In order to further understand the role of IC on cardiovascular control, the present study compared the CV responses evoked by stimulation of N-metil-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors in the right and left posterior IC at different rostrocaudal levels. Intracortical microinjections of NMDA were performed into the IC of male Wistar rats anaesthetized with urethane (1.4 g/kg) prepared for blood pressure, heart rate and renal sympathetic nerve activity. Gene expression of NMDA receptor subunits NR2A and NR2B in the IC was confirmed by RT-PCR. Immunofluorescence for the NMDA receptor NR1 subunit was demonstrated in the IC (coordinates anteroposterior (AP) +1.5, 0.0 and -1.5 mm). A cardiac sympathoinhibitory site was identified, more rostrally located than identified in previous studies. A site of sympathoexcitatory cardiac control was identified more caudal to this region in agreement with earlier work. Under the experimental conditions, no lateralization of cardiovascular function was identified with chemical stimulation eliciting the same responses from either left or right insular cortices. No tonic role of the insula on cardiovascular control was identified with the use of the NMDA antagonist, AP-5. Peri-insular microinjection of NMDA was without cardiovascular effect indicating the specificity of the insula as a cardiovascular regulatory site. The current study reveals a functional topography for autonomic cardiovascular control along the rostrocaudal axis of the posterior IC.