Methyl-ß-Cyclodextrin Impairs the Phosphorylation of the ß2 Subunit of L-Type Calcium Channels and Cytosolic Calcium Homeostasis in Mature Cerebellar Granule Neurons.

The activation of L-type calcium channels (LTCCs) prevents cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) from entering low-K⁺-induced apoptosis. In previous works, we showed that LTCCs are largely associated with caveolin-1-rich lipid rafts in the CGN plasma membrane. In this work, we show that protein kinase A (PKA) and calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMK-II) are associated with caveolin-1-rich lipid rafts of mature CGNs, and we further show that treatment with the cholesterol-trapping and lipid raft-disrupting agent methyl-ß-cyclodextrin decreases the phosphorylation level of the LTCC ß2 subunit and the steady-state calcium concentration in neuronal somas ([Ca2+]i) to values close to those measured in 5 mM KCl proapoptotic conditions. These effects correlate with the effects produced by a short (15 min) treatment of CGNs with H-89 and KN-93-inhibitors of PKA and CaMK-II, respectively-in 25 mM KCl medium. Moreover, only a 15 min incubation of CGNs with H-89 produces about a 90% inhibition of the calcium entry that would normally occur through LTCCs to increase [Ca2+]i upon raising the extracellular K⁺ from 5 to 25 mM, i.e., from proapoptotic to survival conditions. In conclusion, the results of this work suggest that caveolin-1-rich lipid rafts play a major role in the control of the PKA- and CaMK-II-induced phosphorylation level of the LTCC ß2 subunit, thus preventing CGNs from entering apoptosis.

Creatine Protects Against Cytosolic Calcium Dysregulation, Mitochondrial Depolarization and Increase of Reactive Oxygen Species Production in Rotenone-Induced Cell Death of Cerebellar Granule Neurons.

Rotenone is a neurotoxin that is an active component of many pesticides which has been shown to induce Parkinsonism in animal models. We show that the cytotoxicity of exposure to nanomolar concentrations of rotenone in cultures of mature cerebellar granule neurons (CGN) in serum-free medium is not due to phagocytosis by glial contamination. A concentration as low as 5.65 ± 0.51 nM of rotenone was enough to trigger 50% cell death of mature CGN in culture after 12 h. The addition of serum proteins to the culture medium attenuated rotenone neurotoxicity, and this can account at least in part for the requirement of higher rotenone concentrations to elicit neuronal cytotoxicity reported in previous works. Creatine partial protection against CGN death promoted by 5 nM rotenone correlated with creatine protection against rotenone-induced mitochondrial depolarization and oxidative stress. Furthermore, creatine largely attenuated the early dysregulation of cytosolic Ca2+ concentration after acute rotenone treatment. Noteworthy, our results also revealed that the sustained alteration of Ca2+ homeostasis induced by rotenone takes place at the onset of the enhancement of intracellular oxidative stress and before mitochondrial depolarization, pointing out that cytosolic Ca2+ dysregulation is a very early event in the rotenone toxicity to CGN.

Cytochrome b5 reductase is the component from neuronal synaptic plasma membrane vesicles that generates superoxide anion upon stimulation by cytochrome c.

In this work, we measured the effect of cytochrome c on the NADH-dependent superoxide anion production by synaptic plasma membrane vesicles from rat brain. In these membranes, the cytochrome c stimulated NADH-dependent superoxide anion production was inhibited by antibodies against cytochrome b5 reductase linking the production to this enzyme. Measurement of the superoxide anion radical generated by purified recombinant soluble and membrane cytochrome b5 reductase corroborates the production of the radical by different enzyme isoforms. In the presence of cytochrome c, a burst of superoxide anion as well as the reduction of cytochrome c by cytochrome b5 reductase was measured. Complex formation between both proteins suggests that cytochrome b5 reductase is one of the major partners of cytochrome c upon its release from mitochondria to the cytosol during apoptosis. Superoxide anion production and cytochrome c reduction are the consequences of the stimulated NADH consumption by cytochrome b5 reductase upon complex formation with cytochrome c and suggest a major role of this enzyme as an anti-apoptotic protein during cell death.

Valuing the Endangered Species Antirrhinum lopesianum: Neuroprotective Activities and Strategies for in vitro Plant Propagation.

Plant phytochemicals are described as possessing considerable neuroprotective properties, due to radical scavenging capacity and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity, important bioactivities in neurodegeneration. Antirrhinum lopesianum is a rare endemism from the Iberian Peninsula, occurring at the northeastern border between Portugal and Spain. It is classified as Endangered, due to its highly fragmented geographical occupation, facing a high risk of extinction in the Portuguese territory, within 20 years. Here, we describe for the first time the chemical characterization of extracts of the species concerning total phenol content, flavonoid content and antioxidant properties. The profile of high performance liquid chromatography with diode array detector (HPLC-DAD) of the polyphenol-enriched fraction of plant extracts was also performed, showing the great potential of the species as a source of bioactive phytochemical compounds. A. lopesianum's potential for neuroprotection was revealed by a significant acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity and also by a neuroprotective effect on a human cell model of neurodegeneration. Moreover, this is the first report describing a successful procedure for the in vitro propagation of this endangered species. The comparison of phenolic content and the HPLC-DAD profile of wild and in vitro propagated plants revealed that in vitro plants maintain the ability to produce secondary metabolites, but the profiles are differentially affected by the growth regulators. The results presented here greatly contribute to the value for this species regarding its potential as a source of phytochemicals with prospective neuroprotective health benefits.

The neuroprotective potential of phenolic-enriched fractions from four Juniperus species found in Portugal.

The increase in population lifespan has enhanced the incidence of neurodegenerative diseases, for which there is, as yet, no cure. We aimed to chemically characterize phenolic-enriched fractions (PEFs) from four wild Juniperus sp. found in Portugal (Juniperus navicularis, Juniperus oxycedrus badia, Juniperus phoenicea and Juniperus turbinata) and address their potential as sources of natural products for treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Leaves from the four Juniperus sp. evaluated contained a range of phenolic components which differed quantitatively between the species. The PEFs obtained were rich sources of phenolic compounds, exhibited acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory activity and also displayed effective intracellular radical scavenging properties in neurons submitted to oxidative injury but showed a different order of effectiveness compared to AChE inhibition. These properties made them good candidates for testing in a neurodegeneration cell model. Pre-incubation with J. oxycedrus badia PEF for 24h protected neurons from injury in the neurodegeneration cell model.

Bioactive compounds from endemic plants of Southwest Portugal: inhibition of acetylcholinesterase and radical scavenging activities.

CONTEXT: Natural products are reported to have substantial neuroprotective activity due to their radical scavenging capacity, and also acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory capacity, both activities important in neurodegeneration. OBJECTIVE: The undesirable side effects of compounds in pharmacological use make it important to identify natural neuroprotective molecules. This work assesses the potential of five endemic Portuguese plants as sources of neuroprotective compounds. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Antioxidant capacity for peroxyl radical was determined by Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity method and for hydroxyl by Electron Paramagnetic Resonance, as well as AChE inhibitory capacity of the plant hydroethanolic extracts. The molecules responsible for these valuable properties were also tentatively identified by HPLC. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: Armeria rouyana and Thymus capitellatus presented some of the highest phenolic contents (76.60 ± 7.19 and 12.82 ± 0.24 mg GAE g−1 dw, respectively) and antioxidant capacities (592 ± 116 and 449 ± 57 µmol TE g−1 dw, respectively). The flavonoids were identified as the phytomolecules related to the antioxidant capacity of these plant extracts; in the case of A. rouyana, l-ascorbic acid also made an important contribution (3.27 ± 0.26 mg g−1 dw). Plant extracts clearly demonstrated effective AChE inhibitory activity (480 ± 98 and 490 ± 46 µg mL−1, respectively), that could be associated to polyphenols. CONCLUSIONS: The extracts of A. rouyana and T. capitellatus and their active components, especially polyphenols, demonstrate interesting neuroprotective potential. They, therefore, deserve further study as their phytomolecules are promising sources of either natural neuroprotective products and/or novel lead compounds.

Antioxidant properties and neuroprotective capacity of strawberry tree fruit (Arbutus unedo).

Berries contain significant amounts of phytochemicals, including polyphenols, which are reported to reduce cancer risk, coronary heart disease and other degenerative diseases. These effects are mainly attributed to the antioxidant capacity of polyphenols found in berries. Strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo) berries are used in folk medicine but seldom eaten as fresh fruits. Their phenolic profile and antioxidant capacity reveal a high potential, but they are not well characterized as a "health promoting food". The aim of this study was to assess the antioxidant properties of the edible strawberry tree fruit in vitro and in a neurodegeneration cell model. Raspberry (Rubus idaeus), a well documented health-promoting fruit, was used as a control for comparison purposes. A. unedo yielded a similar content in polyphenols and a slightly lower value of total antioxidant capacity in comparison to R. idaeus. Although the chemically-measured antioxidant activity was similar between both fruits, R. idaeus increased neuroblastoma survival in a neurodegeneration cell model by 36.6% whereas A. unedo extracts caused no effect on neuroblastoma viability. These results clearly demonstrate that a promising level of chemically-determined antioxidant activity of a plant extract is not necessarily correlated with biological significance, as assessed by the effect of A. unedo fruit in a neurodegeneration cell model.