Arousal, Gray's theory of anxiety, and the etiology of psychopathy.

This paper focuses on Jeffrey Gray's theory of anxiety from the perspective of Fowles' (1980) application of his work to theories of arousal, psychophysiology, and the etiology of psychopathy. Although highly influential, the concept of general arousal failed to find support in terms of between-individuals assessment with multiple physiological measures. Gray's constructs of a behavioral inhibition system (BIS) that mediates anxiety, a behavioral approach or activation system (BAS) that energizes behavior to approach rewards, and a nonspecific arousal system that energizes behavior captured aspects of arousal. Fowles (1980) proposed that the BIS elicits electrodermal activity in response to threats, the BAS increases heart rate in response to reward incentive cues, and psychopathy is associated with a weak BIS. The paper reviews Gray's impact on future research on these topics, including early proposals relevant to the National Institute of Mental Health's Research Domain Criteria. Finally, the paper summarizes the evolution of theories of the etiology of psychopathy since 1980, noting ways in which aspects of Gray's theory are still seen in psychopathy research. Patrick's triarchic model has emerged as a major theory of psychopathy. Beauchaine's trait impulsivity theory of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder also is relevant.

Comparison between the AC and DC measurement of electrodermal activity.

Recording electrodermal activity is a well-accepted physiological measurement for clinical approaches and research. Historically, applying a DC (direct current) signal to the skin to measure the conductance is the most common practice for exogenous recordings. However, this method can be subject to error due to electrode polarization even with "nonpolarizing" electrodes-a problem that can be eliminated with alternating current (AC) methodology. For that reason, Boucsein et al. () called for research demonstrating an AC method that is validated by comparison to standard DC methodology. Additionally, the complex structure of human skin has electrical properties that include both resistance and capacitance, and AC recording enables the measurement of skin susceptance (associated with current flow through capacitors). Finally, AC recording permits the simultaneous recording of the endogenous skin potential. In this paper, the results from a direct comparison between both methods are presented, which has not been reported previously. The results demonstrated excellent agreement between a 20 Hz AC method and a standard DC method, supporting the validity of the AC recording methodology employed. The results also showed that an applied voltage of 0.2 V is sufficient for DC recordings.

Peter Nathan (1935-2016).

Presents an obituary for Peter Nathan who died suddenly on May 8, 2016, in Iowa City, Iowa. Nathan was an outstanding clinical scientist who's pioneering research confirming the effectiveness of psychological interventions to treat alcoholism and substance abuse set off an explosion of research and clinical applications over the ensuing decades. He made seminal contributions to diagnostic decision making, syndromal assessment, and science-based treatments of psychopathology. He helped found the field of social and behavioral science of addiction. His research was supported by millions of dollars in grants from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), as well as from other organizations. He authored or coauthored nearly 20 books, including four editions of the enormously influential A Guide to Treatments that Work, and hundreds of articles in scholarly journals. (PsycINFO Database Record

Effects of grip force on skin conductance measured from a handheld device.

Skin conductance (SC) reflects stimulus significance and can be measured by integrating electrodes directly onto a smartphone housing such that they are naturally contacted when gripped. However, grip artifacts naturally arise during operation since grip forces can vary. We explored the effects of grip force on SC to determine feasibility and to draw guidelines on artifact mitigation. For this purpose, a prototype was built with integrated SC electrodes with colocated force sensors, and data was collected from 24 participants gripping the prototype across different grip force conditions. Our analysis showed that static forces greater than 2.0 N were associated with significant SC distortion, and artifacts induced from dynamic grip forces were buffered if the SC level was at least 1.1 microsiemens. Our findings are relevant for future applications of SC sensing on smartphones, which may enable interesting and highly contextual user experiences.

Publication recommendations for electrodermal measurements.

This committee was appointed by the SPR Board to provide recommendations for publishing data on electrodermal activity (EDA). They are intended to be a stand-alone source for newcomers and experienced users. A short outline of principles for electrodermal measurement is given, and recommendations from an earlier report (Fowles et al., ) are incorporated. Three fundamental techniques of EDA recording are described: (1) endosomatic recording without the application of an external current, (2) exosomatic recording with direct current (the most widely applied methodology), and (3) exosomatic recording with alternating current-to date infrequently used but a promising future methodology. In addition to EDA recording in laboratories, ambulatory recording has become an emerging technique. Specific problems that come with this recording of EDA in the field are discussed, as are those emerging from recording EDA within a magnetic field (e.g., fMRI). Recommendations for the details that should be mentioned in publications of EDA methods and results are provided.

Dual temperamental risk factors for psychopathic personality: evidence from self-report and skin conductance.

Psychopathy is a personality disorder consisting of dysfunctional affective interpersonal features (Factor 1) and impulsive-antisocial behavior (Factor 2) that exhibit differential associations with palmar skin conductance (SC) reactivity. The goal of this study was to determine whether the distinct SC reactivity observed in incarcerated psychopaths generalizes to university students who score high on personality dimensions hypothesized to be the risk factors for these psychopathy factors. Lilienfeld's Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI; Lilienfeld & Andrews, 1996) was used to compute scores on 2 factor-analytically derived dimensions that have been the focus of recent research in psychopathy. PPI-1 is hypothesized to relate to the low-fear temperamental risk factor, whereas PPI-2 is hypothesized to relate to regulatory dysfunction. SC reactivity was measured during tasks previously used in studies of diagnosed psychopaths. Results indicated that PPI-1 was associated with reduced SC during anticipation of an aversive noise and PPI-2 was associated with enhanced SC reactivity during presentation of a speech about one's faults. Additional analyses explored an 8-factor solution of the PPI and 3 temperament dimensions derived from factor analysis of several personality measures. Together, the SC results suggest that the Factor 1 pathway, best captured with refined assessments of behavioral fearlessness, related to reduced SC reactivity to an aversive noise-consistent with a weak defense system. The Factor 2 pathway, best captured by higher order dimensions reflecting externalizing, disinhibited forms of negative temperament, related to enhanced SC reactivity to a speech stressor-consistent with high stress reactivity.

Triarchic conceptualization of psychopathy: developmental origins of disinhibition, boldness, and meanness.

The clinical concept of psychopathy ("psychopathic personality") is generally considered to entail persistent behavioral deviancy in the company of emotional-interpersonal detachment. However, longstanding debates continue regarding the appropriate scope and boundaries of the concept. Here, we review alternative historic descriptions of the disorder together with empirical findings for the best-established assessment instruments in use with adolescents and youth as a basis for formulating an integrative, triarchic model of psychopathy. The essence of the triarchic model is that psychopathy encompasses three distinct phenotypic constructs: disinhibition, which reflects a general propensity toward problems of impulse control; boldness, which is defined as the nexus of social dominance, emotional resiliency, and venturesomeness; and meanness, which is defined as aggressive resource seeking without regard for others ("dysaffliated agency"). These differing phenotypic components are considered in terms of relevant etiologic and developmental pathways. The triarchic conceptualization provides a basis for reconciling and accommodating alternative descriptive accounts of psychopathy, and a framework for coordinating research on neurobiological and developmental processes contributing to varying manifestations of the disorder.

The skin conductance orienting response to semantic stimuli: significance can be independent of arousal.

The characteristics of stimuli that elicit skin conductance responses (SCRs) have been conceptualized in varied ways, with strong emphasis on the significance or arousing quality of stimuli. Our goal was to determine whether "significance" can be shown to have an effect on SCRs independent of "arousal," using words as stimuli. Ratings of words indicated that significance is partially independent of arousal. In Study 1, SCRs from 43 participants during presentation of 20 significant, nonarousing words with a negative valence that were either depression related or potentially self-referent and 20 nonsignificant words matched on valence and arousal showed a main effect of significance. In Study 2 (N=44), significant, nonarousing words were sampled more broadly to examine the effects of self-reference and valence. Significance, rather than just negativity or self-reference, elicited SCRs independently of arousal. SCRs to significant words may reflect cognitive and attentional processes that, in turn, might prove useful for the assessment of the cognitive aspects of anxiety.

Schedule-induced electrodermal responding in children.

The current studies were designed to determine whether different intermittent schedules of reinforcement would have a differential effect on the skin conductance responses (SCRs) of children in the 8-12-year-old age range. Results of two experiments indicated that the amplitude of children's SCRs immediately following the occurrence of reinforcement were a function of the schedule of reinforcement, with larger SCRs associated with longer inter-reinforcement intervals. The findings are consistent with the research literature suggesting that long inter-reinforcement intervals can be evocative of aversively motivated emotions, as well as with research on the effects of interstimulus intervals on SCRs. Possible implications for these findings are discussed.