Human responses to Covid-19: The role of optimism bias, perceived severity, and anxiety.

During the Covid-19 pandemic, the governments are trying to contain the spread with non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs), such as social distancing rules, restrictions, and lockdowns. In an effort to identify factors that may influence population adherence to NPIs, we examined the role of optimism bias, anxiety, and perceived severity of the situation in relation to engagement in protective behavioral changes and satisfaction with governments' response to this pandemic. We conducted an online survey in 935 participants (M age  = 34.29; 68.88% females) that was disseminated in April and May 2020 in the Netherlands, Germany, Greece, and USA. Individuals with high optimism bias engaged less in behavioral changes, whereas individuals with high levels of anxiety and high perceived severity engaged more in behavioral changes. Individuals with high optimism bias and high levels of anxiety were less satisfied with the governments' response, albeit for different reasons. Individuals who reported low perceived severity and low government satisfaction engaged the least in behavioral changes, whereas participants who reported high perceived severity and low government satisfaction engaged the most in behavioral changes. This study contributes to a better understanding of the psychological factors that influence people's responses to NPIs.

Salivary oxytocin after oxytocin administration: Examining the moderating role of childhood trauma.

Although oxytocin administration influences behavior, its effects on peripheral oxytocin concentrations are mixed and derived from studies on healthy subjects. Additionally, trauma attenuates the behavioral effects of oxytocin, but it is unknown whether it also influences its effect on peripheral circulation. This study examined whether salivary oxytocin increased after oxytocin administration and whether trauma attenuated this effect. We conducted a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, within-subjects study in 100 male adolescents living in residential youth care facilities. Participants self-administered intranasally 24 IU of oxytocin and placebo (one week later) and provided a saliva sample before and 15 min after administration. Salivary oxytocin increased significantly after oxytocin administration, but this effect might be inflated by exogenous oxytocin reaching the throat. Trauma did not moderate this effect. Our findings suggest that trauma did not attenuate the effect of oxytocin administration on salivary oxytocin, but more robust methodologies are recommended to draw more solid conclusions.

The effect of oxytocin administration on empathy and emotion recognition in residential youth: A randomized, within-subjects trial.

Previous research has revealed a positive effect of oxytocin administration on several social behaviors especially in individuals with social-affective deficits. However, it is still unknown whether intranasal oxytocin administration (OT-IN) can be beneficial to residential youth who exhibit severe social-affective impairments. We conducted a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, within-subjects, sequential study to examine the effect of OT-IN on empathy and emotion recognition in 100 male adolescents living in residential youth care facilities. We also explored the moderating role of callous-unemotional traits, trauma, and dissociation in the oxytocin effect. Participants self-administered one dose of 24 IU of oxytocin or placebo and performed experimental tasks on empathy and emotion recognition before and after the administration. The same procedure was performed one week later with the other substance. We found that empathy was increased after oxytocin administration compared to placebo and this effect was specific to individuals with high callous-unemotional traits. There was no effect of OT-IN on the overall emotion recognition, but there was a positive effect on accuracy of fear recognition. Trauma and dissociation did not moderate the oxytocin effect on empathy or emotion recognition. Our findings provided evidence of a beneficial effect of OT-IN on empathy and fear recognition in residential youth. We propose that a combination of OT-IN and psychological interventions merits further exploration, as it might be a novel promising direction for more tailored approaches and better treatment outcomes.

Dissociation and psychopathology in residential youth: a brief report.

Although dissociative symptoms are observed in several psychiatric disorders and linked to antisocial behavior and offending, the relation between dissociation and psychopathology or comorbidity has not been consistently investigated in residential youth yet. This brief report documented prevalence and comorbidity rates of several psychiatric disorders and examined their relation to dissociation in residential youth. The study included 100 male adolescents (Mage = 16.51) admitted to residential youth care facilities. Psychopathology was assessed with the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview for children and adolescents (MINI-KID) and dissociation was measured with the Adolescent Dissociative Experiences Scale (A-DES). Externalizing problems (conduct disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) were the most prevalent (81%) followed by substance abuse/dependence (71%), manic/hypomanic symptoms (40%), anxiety (35%), and depression (33%). High comorbidity was also observed in externalizing problems with alcohol/substance abuse/dependence (67%), manic/hypomanic symptoms (35%), depression (31%), and anxiety (30%). Logistic regression analyses revealed a significant link between dissociation and externalizing problems, depression, and manic/hypomanic symptoms, as well as comorbid externalizing problems and depression or manic/hypomanic symptoms. The findings highlight the need to assess dissociation in order to better understand the multifaceted individual profile of residential youth and incorporate it in the treatment plan.

Oxytocin Receptor Gene (OXTR) and Deviant Peer Affiliation: A Gene-Environment Interaction in Adolescent Antisocial Behavior.

Although the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) is involved in aggression and social affiliation, it has not been examined in gene-environment interaction studies. This longitudinal study examined the effect of genetic variants in OXTR and its gene-environment interaction with perceived deviant peer affiliation in the trajectories of antisocial behavior in 323 adolescents (182 males) from 13 to 18 years. Annual assessments of reactive and proactive aggression, delinquency, and friends' delinquency, as well as DNA at age 17 were collected. Gene-based tests yielded no main effect of OXTR, but revealed a significant gene-environment interaction in proactive aggression and delinquency. Variation in the OXTR might affect the influence of deviant peer affiliation on antisocial behavior, contributing to a better understanding of individual differences in antisocial behavior.

Daily oxytocin patterns in relation to psychopathy and childhood trauma in residential youth.

Inconsistent findings have been found on the relation between oxytocin levels and psychopathy or callous-unemotional (CU) traits in humans, potentially because the role of trauma in oxytocin secretion and the distinction between primary and secondary psychopathy have been overlooked so far. Primary psychopathy has a stronger biological background, whereas secondary psychopathy mainly develops due to environmental adversity, such as childhood trauma. This study investigated the interaction effects of CU traits and childhood trauma on daily salivary oxytocin levels in 57 males living in residential youth care facilities. Participants provided six saliva samples (morning, afternoon, and evening for two consecutive days) and completed self-report questionnaires on CU traits and childhood trauma. A mean daily oxytocin and an oxytocin pattern across the day were examined. A significant interaction between CU traits and one trauma category (emotional neglect) on mean daily oxytocin was observed, demonstrating that subjects with high CU traits and low levels of emotional neglect (primary psychopathy) exhibited lower daily oxytocin secretion compared to subjects with high CU traits and high levels of emotional neglect (secondary psychopathy). There were no significant interactions with the other trauma types or in daily oxytocin patterns. Our findings provided a first insight into the potentially distinct oxytocin concentrations in primary and secondary psychopathy, suggesting that primary psychopathy might be linked to lower daily oxytocin output. Future longitudinal studies are required to unravel the developmental patterns of oxytocin secretion and determine whether lower oxytocin output might be a biomarker of primary psychopathy.

The role of trauma in the hormonal interplay of cortisol, testosterone, and oxytocin in adolescent aggression.

Although numerous studies have examined the neuroendocrinology of aggression, the findings are mixed and focused on cortisol and testosterone. We argue that past findings remain inconclusive partly because the key roles of oxytocin and trauma have not been systematically integrated yet. Oxytocin is associated with social behavior and interacts with cortisol and testosterone, whereas trauma is a crucial risk factor of aggression that strongly affects hormonal activity. In this review, we investigate the role of trauma in the hormonal interplay of cortisol, testosterone, and oxytocin in aggression during adolescence. We first discuss how these hormones interact with each other and how trauma influences these interactions and then we propose a model that highlights the role of trauma in the hormonal interplay in aggression. We suggest that the timing of trauma has a distinct effect on hormonal activity and it should be integrated into any comprehensive model. Current trauma is linked to different levels of oxytocin, cortisol, testosterone, and testosterone/cortisol ratio than childhood trauma, but this distinction is also influenced by gender and type of aggression. We conclude that in order to better understand the neuroendocrinology of aggression, it is crucial to incorporate the investigation of oxytocin and trauma in future research.

Reduced Freezing in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Patients while Watching Affective Pictures.

Besides fight and flight responses, animals and humans may respond to threat with freezing, a response characterized by bradycardia and physical immobility. Risk assessment is proposed to be enhanced during freezing to promote optimal decision making. Indeed, healthy participants showed freezing-like responses to threat cues. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) patients are characterized by hypervigilance and increased threat responsiveness. We propose that threat responses will be characterized by decreased freezing in PTSD, eliminating possibilities for rejecting cognitive distortions, such as harm expectancy, and thereby contributing to the maintenance of the disorder. However, freezing responses have hardly been investigated in PTSD. Using a stabilometric platform to assess body sway as an indicator of freezing-like behavior, we examined whether veterans with PTSD would show diminished freezing responses to unpleasant versus neutral and pleasant pictures. Fourteen PTSD patients and 14 healthy matched controls watched the pictures, while body sway and heart rate (HR) were continuously assessed. Replicating previous findings, healthy controls showed decreased body sway and HR in response to unpleasant pictures, indicative of freezing-like behavior. In contrast, this response pattern was not observed in PTSD patients. The results may indicate a reduced freezing response in PTSD. As reduced freezing may hinder appropriate risk assessment, it may be an important factor in the maintenance of PTSD. Future research might clarify whether impaired freezing is a PTSD-specific or a transdiagnostic symptom, being present in threat-related disorders.

Tonic immobility differentiates stress responses in PTSD.

BACKGROUND: Tonic immobility (TI) is a state of physical immobility associated with extreme stress and the development of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, it is unknown whether TI is associated with a distinct actual stress response, i.e., objective immobility measured by a stabilometric platform. This study made a first step in exploring this as well as differences in body sway responses between PTSD patients and healthy controls. We hypothesized that PTSD would be related to increased body sway under stress, whereas TI would be related to decreased body sway under stress. METHODS: Eye closure was selected as a PTSD-relevant stress induction procedure. Body sway and heart rate (HR) were measured in 12 PTSD patients and 12 healthy controls in four conditions: (1) maintaining a stable stance with eyes open, (2) with eyes closed, (3) during a mental arithmetic task with eyes open, and (4) with eyes closed. RESULTS: As predicted, PTSD patients showed increased body sway from eyes open to eyes closed compared to controls and this effect was eliminated by executing the arithmetic task. Most importantly, retrospective self-reported TI was associated with lower body sway increases in PTSD and higher body sway decreases in controls from eyes-open to eyes-closed conditions. CONCLUSIONS: These preliminary findings suggest that eye closure has a different effect on PTSD patients than controls and that high self-reported TI might indicate a distinct stress response pattern, i.e., a proneness for immobility. It may be relevant to take such individual differences in stress-response into account in PTSD treatment.

Posttraumatic stress disorder under ongoing threat: a review of neurobiological and neuroendocrine findings.

BACKGROUND: Although numerous studies have investigated the neurobiology and neuroendocrinology of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after single finished trauma, studies on PTSD under ongoing threat are scarce and it is still unclear whether these individuals present similar abnormalities. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this review is to present the neurobiological and neuroendocrine findings on PTSD under ongoing threat. Ongoing threat considerably affects PTSD severity and treatment response and thus disentangling its neurobiological and neuroendocrine differences from PTSD after finished trauma could provide useful information for treatment. METHOD: Eighteen studies that examined brain functioning and cortisol levels in relation to PTSD in individuals exposed to intimate partner violence, police officers, and fire fighters were included. RESULTS: Hippocampal volume was decreased in PTSD under ongoing threat, although not consistently associated with symptom severity. The neuroimaging studies revealed that PTSD under ongoing threat was not characterized by reduced volume of amygdala or parahippocampal gyrus. The neurocircuitry model of PTSD after finished trauma with hyperactivation of amygdala and hypoactivation of prefrontal cortex and hippocampus was also confirmed in PTSD under ongoing threat. The neuroendocrine findings were inconsistent, revealing increased, decreased, or no association between cortisol levels and PTSD under ongoing threat. CONCLUSIONS: Although PTSD under ongoing threat is characterized by abnormal neurocircuitry patterns similar to those previously found in PTSD after finished trauma, this is less so for other neurobiological and in particular neuroendocrine findings. Direct comparisons between samples with ongoing versus finished trauma are needed in future research to draw more solid conclusions before administering cortisol to patients with PTSD under ongoing threat who may already exhibit increased endogenous cortisol levels.

The Association Between Callous-Unemotional Traits, Externalizing Problems, and Gender in Predicting Cognitive and Affective Morality Judgments in Adolescence.

Morality deficits have been linked to callous-unemotional traits and externalizing problems in response to moral dilemmas, but these associations are still obscure in response to antisocial acts in adolescence. Limited evidence on young boys suggested that callous-unemotional traits and externalizing problems were associated with affective but not cognitive morality judgments. The present study investigated these associations in a community sample of 277 adolescents (M age  = 15.35, 64 % females). Adolescents with high callous-unemotional traits showed deficits in affective but not cognitive morality, indicating that they can identify the appropriate moral emotions in others, but experience deviant moral emotions when imagining themselves committing antisocial acts. Externalizing problems and male gender were also strongly related to deficits in affective morality, but they had smaller associations with deficits in cognitive morality too. Implications for treatment and the justice system are discussed.