Minding some animals but not others: Strategic attributions of mental capacities and moral worth to animals used for food in pescatarians, vegetarians, and omnivores.

While moral concern for animals has become increasingly important for both consumer food choice and food policy makers, previous research demonstrated that meat eaters attribute lower moral status and mental capacities to animals raised for meat compared to non-food animals. The current research investigated whether this strategic flexibility in moral concern and mind perceptions also occurs when considering aquatic food animals and animals used for dairy and egg products, and the degree to which these concerns and perceptions are evident in pescatarians and vegetarians. We compared perceptions (mind attributions and moral concern) of land food animals versus aquatic food animals, and of animals in the meat versus dairy and egg industry between omnivores (n = 122), pescatarians (n = 118), vegetarians (n = 138), vegans (n = 120), and flexitarians (n = 60). Pescatarians scored lower than other dietary groups on moral concern and mind attribution for aquatic animals relative to farmed land animals. Unlike the other dietary groups, pescatarians and vegetarians scored lower on moral concern and mind attribution for dairy than beef cows and for layer chickens than broiler chickens. These findings demonstrate that pescatarians and vegetarians were flexible in their moral thinking about different types of food animals in ways that suited their consumption habits, even when the same animal was evaluated (e.g., dairy vs beef cows). This research highlights the psychological barriers that might prevent people from reducing animal product consumption and may need to be addressed in interventions to encourage transitioning towards more plant-based diets.

Feeling morally troubled about meat, dairy, egg, and fish consumption: Dissonance reduction strategies among different dietary groups.

A largescale shift towards plant-based diets is considered a critical requirement for tackling ethical, environmental, and global health issues associated with animal food production and consumption. Although previous research has identified psychological strategies that enable meat-eaters to justify and continue meat consumption and feel less morally conflicted about it, research on the psychological strategies that enable consumers to continue dairy, egg, and fish consumption is scarce. We conducted an online survey study using an adjusted version of the Meat-Eating Justification Scale to investigate the use of psychological strategies to cope with cognitive dissonance related to meat, dairy, egg, and fish consumption in omnivores (n = 186), pescatarians (n = 106), vegetarians (n = 143), vegans (n = 203), and flexitarians (n = 63). Results indicated greater use of meat-related dissonance reduction strategies among omnivores as compared to other dietary groups, greater use of fish-related dissonance reduction strategies among fish consumers (omnivores, flexitarians and pescatarians) compared to vegetarians and vegans, and greater use of dairy and egg-related dissonance reduction strategies among dairy and egg consumers (omnivores, flexitarians, pescatarians, and vegetarians) as compared to vegans. This pattern was particularly clear for justifications used to defend animal product consumption, denial of animal suffering, and use of dichotomization when considering meat and fish consumption. These findings highlight the importance of extending the research on dissonance reduction strategies beyond meat consumption and studying the consumption of a range of animal products. This can help in identifying the psychological barriers to adopting a plant-based diet and informing interventions for behaviour change.

Moral emotions and justifying beliefs about meat, fish, dairy and egg consumption: A comparative study of dietary groups.

Meat eaters and meat abstainers differ in their beliefs and moral emotions related to meat consumption alongside gender differences. Few studies have investigated beliefs and moral emotions in pescatarians and vegans. Little is known about differences in moral emotions and beliefs regarding dairy, eggs, and fish or about speciesist beliefs within and between specific dietary groups. To address this gap, we investigated moral emotions (consumption-related disgust and guilt), attitudes towards animals (Animal Attitudes Scale) and justifying beliefs related to meat (Carnism Inventory), dairy, egg, and fish consumption in omnivores (n = 167), pescatarians (n = 110), vegetarians (n = 116), and vegans (n = 149). Results showed that people who consumed animal-derived products reported lower disgust and guilt and held stronger justifying beliefs about consumption of these products, than those who did not consume animal products. All dietary groups significantly differed from each other in their attitudes about using animals for human benefit, with omnivores showing the least positive attitudes towards animals, followed by pescatarians and vegetarians, and with vegans showing the most positive attitudes towards animals. Women experienced greater moral emotions and held fewer justifying beliefs than men within groups where animal products were consumed and this was related to the animal-based products they consume (i.e., fish for pescatarians and eggs/dairy for vegetarians). These findings emphasise the importance of considering a wider range of animal products, and dietary groups in order to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the psychological underpinnings of animal product consumption. The results highlight differences between dietary groups in attitudes and moral concern towards animals, which may be important to consider when designing interventions to reduce animal product consumption.

Would you exchange your soul for immortality?-existential meaning and afterlife beliefs predict mind upload approval.

Mind upload, or the digital copying of an individual brain and mind, could theoretically allow one to "live forever." If such a technology became available, who would be most likely to approve of it or condemn it? Research has shown that fear of death positively predicts the moral approval of hypothetical mind upload technology, while religiosity may have the opposite effect. We build on these findings, drawing also from work on religiosity and existential mattering as predictors of perceived meaning in one's life. In a cross-sectional study (N = 1,007), we show that existential mattering and afterlife beliefs are negatively associated with moral approval of mind upload technology: people who believe there is a soul or some form of afterlife and who also report a high level of existential mattering, are least likely to morally approve of mind upload technology. Indeed, mind uploading-if it ever becomes feasible-is a form of technology that would fundamentally redraw the existential boundaries of what it means to be human.

Moral Decision-Making During COVID-19: Moral Judgements, Moralisation, and Everyday Behaviour.

The COVID-19 pandemic continues to pose significant health, economic, and social challenges. Given that many of these challenges have moral relevance, the present studies investigate whether the COVID-19 pandemic is influencing moral decision-making and whether moralisation of behaviours specific to the crisis predict adherence to government-recommended behaviours. Whilst we find no evidence that utilitarian endorsements have changed during the pandemic at two separate timepoints, individuals have moralised non-compliant behaviours associated with the pandemic such as failing to physically distance themselves from others. Importantly, our findings show that this moralisation predicts sustained individual compliance with government-recommended behaviours.

The moral foreign language effect is stable across presentation modalities.

People's judgements and decisions often change when made in their foreign language. Existing research testing this foreign language effect has predominantly used text-based stimuli with little research focusing on the impact of listening to audio stimuli on the effect. The only existing study on this topic found shifts in people's moral decisions only in the audio modality. First, by reanalysing the data from this previous study and by collecting data in an additional experiment, we found no consistent effects of using foreign language on moral judgements. Second, in both data sets, we found no significant language by modality interaction. Overall, our results highlight the need for more robust testing of the foreign language effect, and its boundary conditions. However, modality of presentation does not appear to be a candidate for explaining its variability. Data and materials for this experiment are available at https://osf.io/qbjxn/.

Alcohol, empathy, and morality: acute effects of alcohol consumption on affective empathy and moral decision-making.

RATIONALE: Hypothetical moral dilemmas, pitting characteristically utilitarian and non-utilitarian outcomes against each other, have played a central role in investigations of moral decision-making. Preferences for utilitarian over non-utilitarian responses have been explained by two contrasting hypotheses; one implicating increased deliberative reasoning, and the other implicating diminished harm aversion. In recent field experiments, these hypotheses have been investigated using alcohol intoxication to impair both social and cognitive functioning. These studies have found increased utilitarian responding, arguably as a result of alcohol impairing affective empathy. OBJECTIVES: The present research expands existing investigations by examining the acute effects of alcohol on affective empathy and subsequent moral judgments in traditional vignettes and moral actions in virtual reality, as well as physiological responses in moral dilemmas. METHODS: Participants (N = 48) were administered either a placebo or alcohol in one of two dosages; low or moderate. Both pre- and post intervention, participants completed a moral action and moral judgment task alongside behavioural measures of affective empathy. RESULTS: Higher dosages of alcohol consumption resulted in inappropriate empathic responses to facial displays of emotion, mirroring responses of individuals high in trait psychopathy, but empathy for pain was unaffected. Whilst affective empathy was influenced by alcohol consumption in a facial responding task, both moral judgments and moral actions were unaffected. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that facets, beyond or in addition to deficits in affective empathy, might influence the relationship between alcohol consumption and utilitarian endorsements.

Hormonal regulation of oviductal glycoprotein 1 (OVGP1; MUC9) in the rhesus macaque cervix.

BACKGROUND: Macaques are outstanding animal models for the development of new contraceptives. In women, progestin-only contraceptives often fail to block ovulation and are believed to act by altering cervix physiology. Herein, we assessed oviductal glycoprotein 1 (OVGP1) in the macaque cervix as a marker for progestogen action. MATERIALS: Rhesus macaques were treated with estradiol (E2 ), E2 plus progesterone (P), and E2 plus levonorgestrel (LNG), a contraceptive progestin. Samples consisted of archived blocks of midcervix mucosa (epithelium and lamina propria) and fresh epithelial cells collected non-invasively by cytobrush. OVGP1 was assayed by quantitative real-time PCR and localized by immunocytochemistry. RESULTS: OVGP1 transcript was maximal after E2 and reduced after treatment with E2  + P (P < .05). LNG also reduced OVGP1 expression (P < .05). OVGP1-specific staining localized to epithelial cells, and transcript was quantifiable in cytobrush collected samples. CONCLUSIONS: OVGP1 expression in cytobrush samples of macaque cervix provides a non-invasive indicator of contraceptive progestin action.

Virtual morality in the helping professions: Simulated action and resilience.

Recent advances in virtual technologies have allowed the investigation of simulated moral actions in aversive moral dilemmas. Previous studies have employed diverse populations to explore these actions, with little research considering the significance of occupation on moral decision-making. For the first time, in this study we have investigated simulated moral actions in virtual reality made by professionally trained paramedics and fire service incident commanders who are frequently faced with and must respond to moral dilemmas. We found that specially trained individuals showed distinct empathic and related personality trait scores and that these declined with years of experience working in the profession. Supporting the theory that these professionals develop resilience in moral conflict, reduced emotional arousal was observed during virtual simulations of a distressing dilemma. Furthermore, trained professionals demonstrated less regret following the execution of a moral action in virtual reality when compared to untrained control populations. We showed that, contrary to previous research, trained individuals made the same moral judgements and moral actions as untrained individuals, though showing less arousal and regret. In the face of increasing concerns regarding empathy decline in health care professionals, we suggest that the nature of this decline is complex and likely reflects the development of a necessary emotional resilience to distressing events.

How Children Become Sensitive to the Morphological Structure of the Words That They Read.

Background: We tested the predictions of models of word reading development as to the effects of repeated exposure on reading of derived words. Aim: Our goal was to examine the impacts of variables that quantify different aspects of this exposure: base frequency, family frequency, and family size. Methods and Samples: In Experiment 1, we asked 75 children in Grades 3 and 5 to read derived words with low surface frequencies (e.g., questionable) that varied in base frequency, family frequency, and family size. In Experiment 2, we asked 41 adults to read the same set of words. Results: In Experiment 1, only base frequency made a contribution to word reading accuracy that was independent of the other two variables of interest (family size and family frequency) and the control variables (surface frequency, semantic relatedness, and neighborhood size). In Experiment 2, a similar pattern of results emerged, this time on reading speed. Conclusion: Together, results of these two studies suggest that base frequency has a special role in both children's and adults' reading of derived words. These findings suggest that it plays a specific role in development and maintenance of sensitivity to morphological structure in reading.

Correction: Virtual Morality: Transitioning from Moral Judgment to Moral Action?

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0164374.].

Virtual Morality: Transitioning from Moral Judgment to Moral Action?

The nature of moral action versus moral judgment has been extensively debated in numerous disciplines. We introduce Virtual Reality (VR) moral paradigms examining the action individuals take in a high emotionally arousing, direct action-focused, moral scenario. In two studies involving qualitatively different populations, we found a greater endorsement of utilitarian responses-killing one in order to save many others-when action was required in moral virtual dilemmas compared to their judgment counterparts. Heart rate in virtual moral dilemmas was significantly increased when compared to both judgment counterparts and control virtual tasks. Our research suggests that moral action may be viewed as an independent construct to moral judgment, with VR methods delivering new prospects for investigating and assessing moral behaviour.

Race, ethnicity, and employment outcomes 1, 5, and 10 years after spinal cord injury: a longitudinal analysis.

OBJECTIVES: (1) To compare the odds of competitive employment versus not competitive employment among a group of white, African American, and Hispanic persons with spinal cord injury (SCI) at 1, 5, and 10 years after injury; (2) to examine the changes in the odds of competitive employment versus not competitive employment over time within each racial/ethnic group, and (3) to compare the changes in the odds of competitive employment versus not competitive employment over time between the racial/ethnic groups. DESIGN: Retrospective study. SETTING: Model SCI systems. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 11,090 persons with SCI (7735 whites, 2381 African Americans, and 974 Hispanics), between ages 18 and 55 years, enrolled in the National Spinal Cord Injury Statistical Center database. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Employment status dichotomized as competitively employed versus not competitively employed. RESULTS: The odds of being competitively employed at 1, 5, and 10 years after injury were 1.58, 2.55, and 3.02, times greater for whites than African Americans and 1.71, 1.86, and 1.71, respectively, times greater for whites than Hispanics. At 10 years after injury, the odds of being competitively employed were 1.77 times greater for Hispanics than for African Americans. Persons of all races/ethnicities and with SCI showed significantly greater increases in the odds of being competitively employed versus not competitively employed over time (1-5 years, 1-10 years, 5-10 years after injury); however, whites and Hispanics had greater increases in the odds of competitive employment over time compared with African Americans. CONCLUSIONS: Regardless of race, short- and long-term employment outcomes were not favorable for persons with SCI; however, African Americans and Hispanics fared worse in employment outcomes compared with whites. Rehabilitation professionals should work to improve employment outcomes for all individuals with SCI, with special emphasis on addressing specific needs of African Americans and Hispanics.

Family needs and psychosocial functioning of caregivers of individuals with spinal cord injury from Colombia, South America.

OBJECTIVE: 1) To determine the most frequent needs in a group of family caregivers of individuals with spinal cord injury in Neiva Colombia; 2) to describe caregivers' psychosocial functioning; and 3) to examine the relationship between caregiver needs and caregiver psychosocial functioning. DESIGN: Cross-sectional. PARTICIPANTS/METHODS: 37 caregivers completed a caregiver needs questionnaire composed of 27 questions (1-5 scale) and 9 sub-scales (emotional, information, economic, community, and household support, respite, physical health, sleep, and psychological health). The Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) was used to measure caregiver depression, the Zarit Burden Interview (ZBI) measured stress, the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List Short Version (ISEL-12) measured social support, and the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) was used to assess satisfaction with life. RESULTS: Information, economic, emotional, community support, and respite needs were most frequently reported among this group of Colombian caregivers. Forty-three percent of the family caregivers reported some level of depression, 68% reported being overwhelmed by their caretaking responsibilities, and 43% reported dissatisfaction with their lives. Information, emotional, economic, physical, sleep, and psychological needs were positively correlated with depression and burden. Those with more household, physical, sleep, economic, and psychological needs had less satisfaction with life and social support. Caregivers with more community and respite needs had less social support, while those with more emotional needs had less satisfaction with life. Caregivers with more respite needs had more burden and those with more household needs had more depression. CONCLUSION: Approximately half of the sample reports some level of burden, depression, or being dissatisfied with life. Psychosocial functioning was related to various family needs. Further longitudinal research is needed to determine whether caregivers with more needs report worse psychosocial functioning or if those with worse psychosocial functioning report more needs.

The effect of dementia patient's physical, cognitive, and emotional/ behavioral problems on caregiver well-being: findings from a Spanish-speaking sample from Colombia, South America.

The current study aims to (1) determine whether there is a relationship between the problems of patients with dementia and the psychosocial functioning of the caregiver, (2) determine whether these relationships exist independent of sociodemographic and caregiving-related variables, and (3) determine which type of problems of patients with dementia best predict the psychosocial functioning of the caregiver. In all, 73 family caregivers were recruited from Bogota, Colombia. The caregivers completed a checklist of problems presented by the person with dementia, Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), Zarit Burden Interview (ZBI), Interpersonal Support Evaluation List (ISEL-12), and Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). Number of cognitive and behavioral/emotional problems presented by the person with dementia was positively correlated with caregiver PHQ-9 and ZBI scores. Number of behavioral/emotional problems was negatively correlated with ISEL-12 scores. Cognitive and behavioral/emotional problems, but not physical, presented by the person with dementia were associated with higher levels of depression and burden of caregiver. Behavioral/emotional difficulties were associated with lower caregiver-perceived social support rating.

Influence of race/ethnicity on divorce/separation 1, 2, and 5 years post spinal cord injury.

OBJECTIVES: (1) To compare the proportions of divorce/separation between races/ethnicities at 1, 2, and 5 years post spinal cord injury (SCI); (2) to examine changes in proportions of divorce/separation over time within each race/ethnicity group; and (3) to compare the changes in proportions of divorce/separation over time between races/ethnicities. DESIGN: Retrospective study. SETTING: Model Spinal Cord Injury Systems. PARTICIPANTS: A sample of participants married preinjury (N=1528; 1108 whites, 258 blacks, 162 Hispanics) was selected from the National Spinal Cord Injury Statistical Center database from 1988 to 1998. INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Proportion of separation/divorce at 1, 2, and 5 years postinjury for each race/ethnic group. RESULTS: At all postinjury years (1, 2, 5y), blacks had significantly greater odds of divorce/separation versus staying married than Hispanics. In addition, whites had significantly greater odds of divorce/separation versus staying married compared with Hispanics at 1 and 2 years postinjury. People with SCI of all races/ethnicities showed significantly greater increases in the odds of divorce/separation versus staying married over time (1-2, 2-5, 1-5y postinjury). Although there was evidence that the races/ethnicities were significantly different at each postinjury year, and that each race/ethnicity showed significant increases in the proportion of divorce/separation over time, there was no indication that the increases in the divorce/separation over time were significantly different among the race/ethnic groups. CONCLUSIONS: Family therapists and rehabilitation professionals should work together to reduce the separation and divorce rates in all subjects with SCI, with special attention paid to meeting the specific needs of those with minority backgrounds.