Proteomic Markers of Functional Sperm Population in Bovines: Comparison of Low- and High-Density Spermatozoa Following Cryopreservation.

Mammalian semen contains a heterogeneous population of sperm cells. This heterogeneity results from variability in the complex processes of cell differentiation in the testis, biochemical modifications undergone by spermatozoa during transit along the male reproductive tract, interactions with secretions from accessory sex glands at ejaculation, and, in the context of reproductive technologies, in the ability of ejaculated spermatozoa to resist damage associated with freeze-thaw procedures. When submitted to density gradient centrifugation, ejaculated spermatozoa distribute themselves into two distinct populations: a low-density population characterized by low motility parameters, and a high-density population with high motility characteristics. To understand the origin of ejaculated spermatozoa heterogeneity, cryopreserved semen samples from bulls used by the artificial insemination (A.I.) industry were submitted to Percoll gradient centrifugation. Proteins from low and high density spermatozoa were then extracted with sodium deoxycholate and submitted to proteomic analysis using iTRAQ (isobaric tag for relative and absolute quantitation) methodologies. Quantification of selected sperm proteins was confirmed by multiple reaction monitoring (MRM). Overall, 31 different proteins were more abundant in low-density spermatozoa, while 80 different proteins were more abundant in the high-density subpopulation. Proteins enriched in high-density spermatozoa were markers of sperm functionality such as the glycolytic process, binding to the egg zona pellucida, and motility. Low-density spermatozoa were not solely characterized by loss of proteins and their associated functions. Chaperonin-containing TCP1s and chaperones are hallmarks of the low-density subpopulation. iTRAQ analysis revealed that other proteins such as binder of sperm proteins, histone, GPX5, ELSPBP1, and clusterin are overexpressed in low-density spermatozoa suggesting that these proteins represent defects occurring at different steps during the sperm journey. These differences contribute to the sperm cell heterogeneity present in mammalian semen.

Evidences of Biological Functions of Biliverdin Reductase A in the Bovine Epididymis.

Epididymal sperm binding protein 1 (ELSPBP1) is secreted by the epididymal epithelium via epididymosomes and is specifically transferred to dead spermatozoa during epididymal transit. We identified biliverdin reductase A (BLVRA) as a partner of ELSPBP1 by immunoprecipitation followed by tandem mass spectrometry. Pull down assays showed that these two proteins interact in the presence of zinc ions. The BLVRA enzyme is known to convert biliverdin to bilirubin, both of which possess antioxidant activity. Assessment by real-time RT-PCR showed that BLVRA is highly expressed in the caput and the corpus epididymis, but is expressed at lower levels in the testis and the cauda epididymis. It is primarily found in the soluble fraction of the caput epididymal fluid, is barely detectable in the cauda fluid, and is detectable to a lesser extent in the epididymosome fraction of both caput and cauda fluids. Immunocytometry on epididymal sperm showed that BLVRA is found on all sperm recovered from the caput region, whereas it is undetectable on cauda sperm. Biliverdin and bilirubin are found in higher concentrations in the caput epididymal fluid, as measured by mass spectrometry. Lipid peroxidation was limited by 1 µM of biliverdin, but not bilirubin when caput spermatozoa were challenged with 500 µM H2O2. Since immature spermatozoa are a source of reactive oxygen species, BLVRA may be involved in the protection of maturing spermatozoa. It is also plausible that BLVRA is implicated in haemic protein catabolism in the epididymal luminal environment.

CD9-positive microvesicles mediate the transfer of molecules to Bovine Spermatozoa during epididymal maturation.

Acquisition of fertilization ability by spermatozoa during epididymal transit occurs in part by the transfer of molecules from membranous vesicles called epididymosomes. Epididymosomes are heterogeneous in terms of both size and molecular composition. Exosomes and other related small membranous vesicles (30-120 nm) containing tetraspanin proteins on their surface are found in many biological fluids. In this study, we demonstrate that these vesicles are present in bovine cauda epididymal fluid as a subpopulation of epididymosomes. They contain tetraspanin CD9 in addition to other proteins involved in sperm maturation such as P25b, GliPr1L1, and MIF. In order to study the mechanism of protein transfer to sperm, DilC12-labeled unfractionated epididymosomes or CD9-positive microvesicles were coincubated with epididymal spermatozoa, and their transfer was evaluated by flow cytometry. CD9-positive microvesicles from epididymal fluid specifically transferred molecules to spermatozoa, whereas those prepared from blood were unable to do so. The CD9-positive microvesicles transferred molecules to the same sperm regions (acrosome and midpiece) as epididymosomes, with the same kinetics; however, the molecules were preferentially transferred to live sperm and, in contrast to epididymosomes, Zn(2+) did not demonstrate potentiated transfer. Tetraspanin CD9 was associated with other proteins on the membrane surface of CD9-positive microvesicles according to coimmunoprecipitation experiments. CD26 cooperated with CD9 in the molecular transfer to sperm since the amount of molecules transferred was significantly reduced in the presence of specific antibodies. In conclusion, CD9-positive microvesicles are present in bovine cauda epididymal fluid and transfer molecules to live maturing sperm in a tissue-specific manner that involves CD9 and CD26.

Epididymosomes transfer epididymal sperm binding protein 1 (ELSPBP1) to dead spermatozoa during epididymal transit in bovine.

Previously, we showed that epididymal sperm binding protein 1 (ELSPBP1) characterizes spermatozoa already dead before ejaculation in bovine. In this study, we investigated the presence of ELSPBP1 in bull genital tract as well as its acquisition by spermatozoa during epididymal transit. As assessed by real-time RT-PCR, ELSPBP1 was highly expressed in the caput and the corpus epididymis but was present in lower expression levels in the testis and the cauda epididymis. Immunohistochemistry revealed the same expression pattern. However, Western blot on tissue homogenates showed some discrepancies, as ELSPBP1 was found in a comparable concentration all along the epididymis. This difference was due to the presence of ELSPBP1 in the epididymal fluid. In both caput and cauda epididymal fluid, ELSPBP1 was associated with the epididymosomes, small membranous vesicles secreted by epithelial cells of the epididymis and implicated in the transfer of proteins to spermatozoa. As assessed by immunocytometry, ELSPBP1 was found on a subset of dead spermatozoa in caput epididymis but was found on all dead spermatozoa in cauda epididymis. To assess ELSPBP1 acquisition by spermatozoa, caput epididymal spermatozoa were incubated with cauda epididymosomes under various conditions. ELSPBP1 detection by immunocytometry assay revealed that only spermatozoa already dead before incubation were receptive to ELSPBP1 transfer by epididymosomes. This receptivity was enhanced by the presence of zinc in the incubation medium. This specificity for a sperm subpopulation suggests that an underlying mechanism is involved and that ELSPBP1 could be a tag for the recognition of dead spermatozoa during epididymal transit.

The polyol pathway in the bovine oviduct.

The oviducts likely provide optimized micro-environments for the final maturation of gametes, fertilization, and early embryo development. Hexoses, including glucose, fructose, and sorbitol, are involved in these critical reproductive events. Monosaccharide production is controlled, in part, by the polyol pathway and requires two enzymes: an aldose reductase (AR) that reduces glucose into sorbitol, followed by its oxidation into fructose by sorbitol dehydrogenase (SDH). We analyzed the expression of AR and SDH in the isthmus and ampulla of the bovine oviduct at the proliferative, mid-luteal, and late-luteal phases of the estrous cycle by quantitative PCR and immunoblots. Immunochemistry and an assay of SDH activity were also performed. The quantity of hexoses in whole sections of isthmus and ampulla were determined by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. In sum, AR expression was restricted to the isthmus, while SDH was mostly expressed in the isthmic-ampullary junction and the ampulla, specifically concentrated in the luminal epithelium of the oviduct. The estrous cycle had no impact on protein expression of AR and SDH. Instead, the levels of AR and SDH expression were associated with higher ratios of sorbitol to fructose in the isthmus (1.6) than in the ampulla (4.1; P = 0.005). These results are discussed in light of physiological events occurring in the oviduct.

Bovine sperm raft membrane associated Glioma Pathogenesis-Related 1-like protein 1 (GliPr1L1) is modified during the epididymal transit and is potentially involved in sperm binding to the zona pellucida.

Glioma pathogenesis-related 1-like protein1 (GliPr1L1) was identified by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analyses of proteins associated to bovine sperm lipid raft membrane domains. This protein belongs to the CAP superfamily including cysteine-rich secretory proteins, Antigen 5 and pathogenesis-related 1 protein. PCR analysis revealed that GliPr1L1 is expressed in testis and, at a much lower level, all along the epididymis. Western blotting showed a similar distribution of GliPr1L1 in testicular and epididymal tissue extracts. In the epididymal lumen, GliPr1L1 was associated with the maturing spermatozoa and epididymosomes all along the excurrent duct but was undetectable in the soluble fraction of epididymal fluid. The protein was detectable as multiple isoforms with a higher MW form in the testis and proximal caput. Treatments with PNGase F revealed that N-glycosylation was responsible of multiple bands detected on Western blots. These results suggest that the N-glycosylation moiety of GliPr1L1 is processed during the transit in the caput. Western blots demonstrated that GliPr1L1 was associated with the sperm plasma membrane preparation. GliPr1L1 is glycosyl phosphatidyl inositol (GPI) anchored to caput and cauda spermatozoa as demonstrated by the ability of phosphatidylinositol specific phospholipase C to release GliPr1L1 from intact sperm cells. Lipid raft membrane domains were separated from caput and cauda epididymal spermatozoa. GliPr1L1 was immunodetectable in the low buoyant density fractions where lipid rafts are distributed. GliPr1L1 was localized on sperm equatorial segment and neck. In vitro fertilization performed in presence of anti-GliPr1L1 showed that this protein is involved in sperm-zona pellucida interaction.

ATP-binding cassette transporter G2 activity in the bovine spermatozoa is modulated along the epididymal duct and at ejaculation.

During their epididymal maturation, stabilizing factors such as cholesterol sulfate are associated with the sperm plasma membrane. Cholesterol is sulfated in epididymal spermatozoa by the enzyme estrogen sulfotransferase. Because of its role in the efflux of sulfate conjugates formed intracellularly by sulfotransferases, the ATP-binding cassette membrane transporter G2 (ABCG2) might have a role in the translocation of this compound across the plasma membrane. In the present study we showed that ABCG2 is present in the plasma membrane overlaying the acrosomal region of spermatozoa recovered from testis, epididymis, and after ejaculation. Although ABCG2 is also present in epididymosomes, the transporter is not transferred to spermatozoa via this mechanism. Furthermore, although epididymal sperm ABCG2 was shown to be functional, as determined by its ability to extrude Hoechst 33342 in the presence of the specific inhibitor Fumitremorgin C, ABCG2 present in ejaculated sperm was found to be nonfunctional. Additional experiments demonstrated that phosphorylation of ABCG2 tyrosyl residues, but not its localization in lipid rafts, is the mechanism responsible for its functionality. Dephosphorylation of ABCG2 in ejaculated spermatozoa is proposed to cause a partial protein relocalization to other intracellular compartments. Prostasomes are proposed to have a role in this process because incubation with this fraction of seminal plasma induces a decrease in the amount of ABCG2 in the associated sperm membrane fraction. These results demonstrate that ABCG2 plays a role in epididymal sperm maturation, but not after ejaculation. The loss of ABCG2 function after ejaculation is proposed to be regulated by prostasomes.

Binder of sperm 1 and epididymal sperm binding protein 1 are associated with different bull sperm subpopulations.

Previously, we showed that binder of sperm 1 (BSP1) and epididymal sperm binding protein 1 (ELSPBP1) proteins are more abundant in the immotile bovine sperm subpopulation following cryopreservation. In this study, we investigated the association of BSP1 and ELSPBP1 with sperm in relation to their ability to survive the cryopreservation process. Fresh and cryopreserved semen samples from the same ejaculate collected from nine Holstein bulls were incubated with a fixable viability probe, fixed and permeabilised and then immunolabelled with rabbit anti-BSP1, rabbit anti-ELSPBP1 or rabbit IgG as negative control. Spermatozoa were then incubated with Alexa 488-conjugated secondary antibody and Hoechst 33342. For each sample, 10 000 'Hoechst positive' events were analysed by flow cytometry. Alternatively, sperm populations were obtained by fluorescence-activated cell sorting. In freshly ejaculated live sperm, two distinct BSP1 detection patterns were revealed: a first population where BSP1 is present along the flagellar region (P1 subpopulation) and a second population where BSP1 is localised on both the flagellar and the acrosomal regions (P3 subpopulation). The dead population presented a BSP1 distribution similar to P3 but with a more intense fluorescence signal (P4 subpopulation). In the corresponding cryopreserved samples, all sperm in the P3 subpopulation were dead while only a small proportion of the P1 subpopulation was dead (P2 subpopulation). ELSPBP1 was detected only in dead spermatozoa and in comparable proportions in both freshly ejaculated and cryopreserved semen. These results show that the presence of BSP1 over the acrosomal region characterises spermatozoa sensitive to cryopreservation and that ELSPBP1 characterises spermatozoa that are already dead at ejaculation.

Post testicular sperm maturational changes in the bull: important role of the epididymosomes and prostasomes.

After spermatogenesis, testicular spermatozoa are not able to fertilize an oocyte, they must undergo sequential maturational processes. Part of these essential processes occurs during the transit of the spermatozoa through the male reproductive tract. Since the sperm become silent in terms of translation and transcription at the testicular level, all the maturational changes that take place on them are dependent on the interaction of spermatozoa with epididymal and accessory gland fluids. During the last decades, reproductive biotechnologies applied to bovine species have advanced significantly. The knowledge of the bull reproductive physiology is really important for the improvement of these techniques and the development of new ones. This paper focuses on the importance of the sperm interaction with the male reproductive fluids to acquire the fertilizing ability, with special attention to the role of the membranous vesicles present in those fluids and the recent mechanisms of protein acquisition during sperm maturation.

Characterization of two distinct populations of epididymosomes collected in the intraluminal compartment of the bovine cauda epididymis.

During their transit along the epididymis, mammalian spermatozoa acquire new proteins that are necessary for their acquisition of forward motility and fertility. By using the bovine model, we previously showed that small membranous vesicles named epididymosomes are secreted in the epididymal intraluminal compartment. Epididymosomes from caput and cauda are different, and interact sequentially with the transiting spermatozoa. In fact, selected proteins of epididymosomes are transferred to different subcompartments of the maturing spermatozoa. In this study, we investigate the possibility that different subpopulations of epididymosomes are present in the caudal portion of the epididymis. Through the use of discontinuous sucrose gradient ultracentrifugation, we isolated two distinct populations that differ in their protein and lipid compositions. Although they have similar diameters, the ultrastructural appearance of these two populations was very different. The low-density (Ld) vesicles are enriched in cholesterol, sphingomyelin, and ganglioside M1, suggesting the existence of detergent-resistant membrane domains or rafts. The high-density (Hd) vesicles show a high protein concentration, including ACTB and VAMP8. When each subpopulation of biotinylated cauda epididymosomes was coincubated with caput spermatozoa, a subset of biotinylated proteins was transferred to the sperm; the Ld and Hd vesicles transferring the same pattern of proteins. In vitro competition assays of protein transferred from Ld or Hd epididymosomes to sperm confirm the similarity in the selected transferred proteins. Electrospray tandem mass spectrometry (ES-MS/MS) analysis of proteins associated with the two populations of vesicles confirm the epididymal origin of some of them, the possible involvement of others in transmembrane signaling systems, and the identification of proteins for which functions in sperm physiology remain to be determined. Mass spectrometry analysis also revealed that ELSPBP1 and GBB2 were transferred from epididymosomes to spermatozoa. Results are discussed with regard to the functions of these two cauda epididymosome populations in sperm physiology.

Proteomic comparison of detergent-extracted sperm proteins from bulls with different fertility indexes.

Intrinsic factors such as proteins modulate the fertilising ability of male gametes. We compared detergent-extracted sperm protein composition of bulls with different fertility indexes in order to highlight putative fertility markers of sperm. Frozen semen from 23 Holstein bulls with documented fertility was used. According to their 'fertility solution' (SOL), as calculated by the Canadian dairy network, bulls were divided into four groups: high fertility (HF) (SOL>3.0; n=6), medium-HF (2.9>SOL>2.0; n=5), medium-low fertility (-2.8>SOL>-4.9; n=8) and low fertility (LF; SOL<-5.0; n=4), with a SOL=0 being the average. Triton X-100 protein extracts from ejaculated spermatozoa were subjected to two-dimensional difference gel electrophoresis, and polypeptide maps were quantitatively analysed by ImageMaster software. Nine protein spots showed significant differences between the HF and LF groups, and eight of these proteins were identified by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. T-complex protein 1 subunits epsilon and (CCT5 and CCT8), two isoforms of epididymal sperm-binding protein E12 (ELSPBP1), proteasome subunit alpha type-6 and binder of sperm 1 (BSP1) were more expressed in the LF group than in the HF group. On the other hand, adenylate kinase isoenzyme 1 (AK1) and phosphatidylethanolamine-binding protein 1 (PEBP1) were more expressed in the HF group than in the LF group. The presence and expression level of ELSPBP1, BSP1, AK1 and PEBP1 were confirmed by western blot. A linear regression model established that CCT5 and AK1 explained 64% (P<0.001) of the fertility scores. The reported functions of these proteins are in agreement with a putative involvement in defective sperm physiology, where lower or higher levels can jeopardise sperm ability to reach and fertilise the oocyte.

Estrogen sulfotransferase is highly expressed along the bovine epididymis and is secreted into the intraluminal environment.

Estrogen is found in high concentrations in the excurrent duct, where it regulates the expression of genes involved in water reabsorption. Estrogen sulfotransferase (EST) is a cytosolic enzyme that catalyzes specific sulfonation with a high affinity for estrogens. Because sulfated estrogens do not bind to estrogen receptors, they are considered to be hormonally inactive. EST may thus determine where along the male tract estrogenic environment predominates. Sulfotransferase activity increases along the epididymis and may also play a role in sperm physiology during the epididymal transit. Using a bovine model, we investigated the distribution of EST along the excurrent duct and the possibility that sterols associated with spermatozoa can be substrates of this enzyme. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reactions showed that mRNA encoding EST was expressed in the testis and all along the epididymis. A highly specific antiserum was raised against the bovine recombinant EST and used in Western blots and immunohistologic studies. Western blots of tissue homogenates showed that EST was localized all along the excurrent duct with a higher signal in the caput and corpus epididymidis. EST was detectable in the intraluminal compartment only in the caput epididymidis, where it was associated with epididymosomes and spermatozoa. EST was undetectable in different fractions of fluids collected in the cauda segment. In immunohistologic studies, EST was restricted to the acrosomal region of the caput, but not the cauda epididymal spermatozoa, and detectable in the cytoplasm of the epithelium bordering the lumen all along the epididymis as well as in the rete testis and vas efferens. This enzyme was also associated with the nucleus in the caput and corpus as well as with the apical membrane of the corpus epididymal epithelium. When recombinant EST was incubated in vitro in the presence of caput and cauda spermatozoa, it was able to add sulfate to sperm membrane cholesterol. Our study shows that EST is present in both the intracellular and intraluminal compartments of the epididymis, suggesting that this enzyme plays different roles along the excurrent duct.

Compartmentalization of proteins in epididymosomes coordinates the association of epididymal proteins with the different functional structures of bovine spermatozoa.

Epididymosomes are small membranous vesicles secreted by epithelial cells within the luminal compartment of the epididymis. In bovine, many proteins are associated with epididymosomes, and some of them, such as the glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored protein P25b, macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), and aldose reductase (AKR1B1), are transferred to spermatozoa during the epididymal maturation process. P25b is associated with detergent-resistant membrane (DRM) domains of epididymal spermatozoa, whereas MIF and AKR1B1 are cytosolic proteins associated with detergent-soluble fractions. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that DRM domains are also present in the epididymosomes and that P25b DRM-associated proteins in these vesicles are transferred to the DRMs of spermatozoa. The presence of DRMs in epididymosomes was confirmed by their insolubility in cold Triton X-100 and their low buoyant density in sucrose gradient. Furthermore, DRMs isolated from epididymosomes are characterized by the exclusive presence of ganglioside GM1 and by high levels of cholesterol and sphingomyelin. Biochemical analysis indicated that P25b is linked to DRM in epididymosomes, whereas MIF and AKR1B1 are completely excluded from these membrane domains. Proteolytic treatment of epididymosomes and immunoblotting studies showed that P25b is affected by trypsin or pronase proteolysis. In contrast, MIF and AKR1B1 are not degraded by proteases, suggesting that they are localized within epididymosomes. Interaction studies between epididymosomes and epididymal spermatozoa demonstrated that P25b is transferred from the DRM of epididymosomes to the DRM of the caput epididymal spermatozoa as a GPI-anchored protein. Together, these data suggest that specific localization and compartmentalization of proteins in the epididymosomes coordinate the association of epididymal proteins with the different functional structures of spermatozoa.

Protein composition of human epididymosomes collected during surgical vasectomy reversal: a proteomic and genomic approach.

BACKGROUND: The epididymal epithelium secretes membranous vesicles, called epididymosomes, with which a complex mixture of proteins is associated. These vesicles transfer to spermatozoa selected proteins involved in sperm maturation. Epididymosomes in the human excurrent duct have been described, but their protein composition and possible functions are unknown. METHODS AND RESULTS: Epididymosomes were collected during vasovasostomy procedures, purified and submitted to liquid chromatography with hybrid quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. From all the mass spectra generated, 1022 peptides allowed the identification of 146 different proteins. Identification of some of these proteins was confirmed by western blots. Furthermore, western blot showed that the protein composition of epididymosomes differed from that characterizing prostasomes; membranous vesicles secreted by the prostate. Organization of the epididymosomes proteome according to common functional features suggests that epididymosomes have multiple functions. In order to understand the origin of epididymosomes collected distally, microarray databases of caput, corpus and cauda epididymidis were analysed to determine where along the excurrent duct the encoded proteins associated to epididymosomes are synthesised. Results suggest that some proteins synthesized in the caput and corpus epididymidis are associated with epididymosomes collected distally. CONCLUSIONS: Epididymosomes thus transit along the excurrent duct, and vesicles collected distally represent a mixed population.

Seminal plasma proteins regulate the association of lipids and proteins within detergent-resistant membrane domains of bovine spermatozoa.

Maturing spermatozoa acquire full fertilization competence by undergoing major changes in membrane fluidity and protein composition and localization. In epididymal spermatozoa, several proteins are associated with cholesterol- and sphingolipid-enriched detergent-resistant membrane (DRM) domains. These proteins dissociate from DRM in capacitated sperm cells, suggesting that DRM may play a role in the redistribution of integral and peripheral proteins in response to cholesterol removal. Since seminal plasma regulates sperm cell membrane fluidity, we hypothesized that seminal plasma factors could be involved in DRM disruption and redistribution of DRM-associated proteins. Our results indicate that: 1) the sperm-associated proteins, P25b and adenylate kinase 1, are linked to DRM of epididymal spermatozoa, but were exclusively associated with detergent-soluble material in ejaculated spermatozoa; 2) seminal plasma treatment of cauda epididymal spermatozoa significantly lowered the content of cholesterol and the ganglioside, GM1, in DRM; and 3), seminal plasma dissociates P25b from DRM in epididymal spermatozoa. We found that the seminal plasma protein, Niemann-Pick C2 protein, is involved in cholesterol and GM1 depletion within DRM, then leading to membrane redistribution of P25b that occurs in a very rapid and capacitation-independent manner. Together, these data suggest that DRM of ejaculated spermatozoa are reorganized by specific seminal plasma proteins, which induce lipid efflux as well as dissociation of DRM-anchored proteins. This process could be physiologically relevant in vivo to allow sperm survival and attachment within the female reproductive tract and to potentiate recognition, binding, and penetration of the oocyte.

Spermatozoa modulate epididymal cell proliferation and protein secretion in vitro.

Normal epididymal function, such as protein expression and secretion, is primarily regulated by testicular androgens and temperature. However, the role of spermatozoa in this critical process has never been studied. In order to determine whether sperm itself could regulate epididymal function, we have developed a cell culture system of bovine epididymal cells to study the interactions between spermatozoa and the epididymal epithelium. Primary cells from caput, corpus, and cauda epididymal tissues were cultured in the presence of androgens at 32 degrees C (scrotal) and 37 degrees C (abdominal). Newly synthesized proteins were metabolically labeled with (35)S-methionine after sperm co-incubation and the pattern of secreted proteins was analyzed by two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Proliferation rate, protein secretion rate and electrophoretic patterns of secreted proteins were evaluated 48 hr post-co-incubation. Incubation at 32 degrees C indicated that spermatozoa stimulation increases the level of protein secretion of cultured cells from all epididymal sections while it slightly decreases proliferation of corpus cells. At 37 degrees C, spermatozoa co-incubation significantly decreases the protein secretion rate of cultured cells from all epididymal sections. Independently of cell incubation temperature, spermatozoa stimulation induces both an increase in the intensity of radiolabeled proteins and the appearance of new secreted proteins of caput cells without affecting the protein pattern of corpus or cauda cells. Incubation at 37 degrees C, however, greatly modifies the pattern of proteins expressed at 32 degrees C by cauda cells. Taken together, these results support the hypothesis that spermatozoa themselves affect epididymal cell function, most importantly for caput epididymides.

Epididymosomes are involved in the acquisition of new sperm proteins during epididymal transit.

During epididymal transit, spermatozoa acquire new proteins. Some of these newly acquired proteins behave as integral membrane proteins, including glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored proteins. This suggests that the secreted epididymal proteins are transferred to spermatozoa by an unusual mechanism. Within the epididymal lumen, spermatozoa interact with small membranous vesicles named epididymosomes. Many proteins are associated with epididymosomes and the protein composition of these vesicles varies along the excurrent duct and differs from soluble intraluminal proteins. Some epididymosome-associated proteins have been identified and their functions in sperm maturation hypothesized. These include P25b, a zona pellucida binding protein, macrophage migration inhibitory factor, enzymes of the polyol pathway, HE5/CD52, type 5 glutathione peroxidase, and SPAM1 or PH-20. The electrophoretic patterns of proteins associated to epididymosomes are complex and some of these proteins are transferred to defined surface domains of epididymal spermatozoa. Epididymosomes collected from different epididymal segments interact differently with spermatozoa. This protein transfer from epididymosomes to spermatozoa is time-dependent, temperature-dependent and pH-dependent, and is more efficient in the presence of zinc. Some proteins are segregated to lipid raft domains of epididymosomes and are selectively transferred to raft domains of the sperm plasma membrane. Some evidence is presented showing that epididymosomes are secreted in an apocrine manner by the epididymal epithelial cells. In conclusion, epididymosomes are small membranous vesicles secreted in an apocrine manner in the intraluminal compartment of the epididymis and play a major role in the acquisition of new proteins by the maturing spermatozoa.

Comparison between epididymosomes collected in the intraluminal compartment of the bovine caput and cauda epididymidis.

During their transit along the epididymidis, mammalian spermatozoa acquire new proteins involved in the acquisition of male gamete fertilizing ability. We previously described membranous vesicles called epididymosomes, which are secreted in an apocrine manner by the epididymal epithelium. Some selected proteins associated with epididymosomes are transferred to spermatozoa during epididymal transit. The present study compared epididymosomes collected from caput epididymal fluid with vesicles from the cauda epididymidis in the bull. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis revealed major differences in protein composition of epididymosomes isolated from the caput and cauda epididymidis. LC-QToF analysis of major protein spots as well as Western blot analysis confirmed the differences in proteins associated with these two populations of epididymosomes. Biotinylated proteins associated with caput and cauda epididymosomes also revealed differences. When incubated with caput epididymal spermatozoa, epididymosomes prepared from these two segments transferred different protein patterns. By contrast, cauda epididymosomes transferred the same pattern of proteins to spermatozoa from the caput and cauda epididymidis. Transfer of biotinylated proteins from cauda epididymosomes to caput spermatozoa decreased in a dose-dependent manner when biotinylated epididymosomes were diluted with unbiotinylated vesicles. Caput epididymosomes added in excess were unable to inhibit transfer of biotinylated proteins from cauda epididymosomes to caput spermatozoa. Following transfer of biotinylated proteins from cauda epididymosomes to caput spermatozoa, addition of unbiotinylated cauda epididymosomes was unable to displace already transferred biotinylated proteins. These results established that epididymosomes from caput and cauda epididymidis have different protein composition and interact differently with maturing spermatozoa.

Polyol pathway in human epididymis and semen.

Two enzymes are involved in the polyol pathway: an aldose reductase that reduces glucose in sorbitol followed by its oxidation in fructose by sorbitol dehydrogenase. It has been previously shown that both enzymes are presented in the bovine epididymis, where they are associated with membranous vesicles called epididymosomes. Based on the distribution of these enzymes, it has been hypothesized that the polyol pathway can modulate sperm motility during the epididymal transit. In the present study, polyol pathway was investigated in semen and along the epididymis in humans in order to determine if sperm maturation can be associated with this sugar pathway. Western blot analysis shows that both aldose reductase and sorbitol dehydrogenase are associated with ejaculated spermatozoa and prostasomes in humans. These enzymes are also associated with epididymosomes collected during surgical vasectomy reversal. Western blot, Northern blot, and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis show that aldose reductase and sorbitol dehydrogenase are expressed at the transcriptional and translational levels along the human epididymis. Unlike what occurs in the bovine model, distribution of these enzymes is rather uniform along the human excurrent duct. Immunohistological studies together with Western blot analysis performed on epididymosomes preparations indicate that the polyol pathway enzymes are secreted by the epididymal epithelium. These results indicate that the polyol pathway plays a role in human sperm physiology.

Macrophage migration inhibitory factor in the human epididymis and semen.

During epididymal transit, mammalian spermatozoa acquire new proteins involved in the acquisition of motility and of male gamete fertilising ability. We have previously shown that membranous vesicles called epididymosomes are involved in the transfer of epididymal-originating proteins to spermatozoa. The cytokine macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) is one of these proteins but the role played by MIF in relation to epididymal sperm maturation still remains unclear. As this protein has already been shown to bear different functions depending on its location, we investigated its distribution along the epididymis and in different compartments of human semen. Northern and Western blot analysis as well as immunohistochemical studies show that MIF is expressed all along the epididymis with a higher level of transcript in the proximal segment. MIF is associated with two types of membranous vesicles, i.e. epididymosomes and prostasomes, the latter being prostate-originating membranous vesicles present in the semen. In semen, MIF is associated with spermatozoa, prostasomes as well as the soluble fraction. The amount of MIF in the seminal fluid varies from one individual to another but does not correlate with the amount of MIF associated with ejaculated spermatozoa. There is a negative correlation between the amount of sperm-associated MIF and the percentage of motility in different semen samples. Sperm separation using discontinuous Percoll gradient centrifugation shows a higher amount of MIF associated with poorly motile spermatozoa compared to highly motile spermatozoa present in the lower Percoll fraction. These results are discussed with regards to the possible involvement of MIF in sperm motility acquisition during the epididymal transit.