Association of transition cow health with pregnancy per artificial insemination and pregnancy loss in Holstein cows submitted to a Double-Ovsynch protocol for first service.

This observational study was conducted to evaluate the effect of transition cow health on pregnancy per artificial insemination (P/AI) and pregnancy loss (PL) in cows submitted to a Double-Ovsynch protocol (DO) for first service. Lactating Holstein cows (n = 15,041) from one commercial dairy farm in northern Germany between January 2015 to December 2021 were enrolled into a modified Double-Ovsynch protocol (GnRH, 7 d later PGF2α, 3 d later GnRH, 7 d later GnRH, 7 d later PGF2α, 24 h later PGF2α, 32 h later GnRH, and 16 to 18 h later timed artificial insemination) for first service at 72 ± 3 d in milk. Pregnancy was diagnosed at 32 and 60 d post-AI via transrectal ultrasonography. Pregnancy loss was defined as the proportion of cows diagnosed pregnant 32 d post-artificial insemination that were diagnosed nonpregnant 60 d post-artificial insemination. Health-related events (i.e., milk fever [MF], hyperketonemia [KET], retained fetal membranes [RFM], metritis, mastitis, left displaced abomasum [LDA]) were assessed by farm personnel using standard operating procedures. Multivariable logistic regression was used for testing potential associations between transition cow health event occurrence and outcome variables, including P/AI and PL. Three separate models were built for cows in first lactation, second lactation, and ≥third lactation. Overall, 20.0% (885/4,430), 34.9% (1,391/3,989), and 53.9% (3,570/6,622) of cows had at least one transition cow health event for first, second, and ≥third lactations, respectively. The most prevalent transition cow health event for first-lactation cows was metritis (10.7%; [473/4,430]), whereas second-lactation cows suffered mostly from mastitis (16.6%; [664/3,989] and KET (16.6%; [661/3,989]), and cows with ≥third lactations were mostly affected by KET (33.2%; [2,198/6,622]). We observed a negative association between inflammatory disorders (i.e., RFM, metritis, mastitis) and P/AI in all cows irrespective of parity. Metabolic disorders (i.e., MF, KET, LDA) were negatively associated with P/AI only in multiparous cows. Irrespective of parity, only uterine diseases (i.e., RFM, metritis) were significantly associated with PL. These results show that enrolling cows into a fertility protocol, such as DO, cannot overcome the carryover effects of inflammatory and metabolic disorders on P/AI and PL and highlight the importance of optimizing transition cow health as a prerequisite for achieving high fertility in a DO protocol.

Effect of postpartum body condition score change on the pregnancy outcomes of lactating Jersey cows inseminated at first service with sexed Jersey or conventional beef semen after a synchronized estrus versus a synchronized ovulation.

Our objective was to compare insemination rate and pregnancies per artificial insemination (P/AI) of lactating Jersey cows inseminated at first service with sexed Jersey or conventional beef semen after submission to a Double-Ovsynch protocol for timed artificial insemination (TAI) versus a protocol to synchronize estrus at similar days in milk (DIM). Secondary objectives were to determine the effect of protocol synchrony and postpartum body condition score (BCS) change on P/AI. Lactating Jersey cows (n = 1,272) were allocated by odd versus even ear tag number, which was randomly allocated within the herd, within parity and semen type for submission to a Double-Ovsynch protocol (DO; n = 707) or a protocol to synchronize estrus (ED; n = 565). All ED cows detected in estrus were inseminated (EDAI; n = 424), with undetected cows receiving TAI after an Ovsynch protocol (EDTAI; n = 141). There was a treatment by parity interaction on insemination rate with 100% of DO cows receiving TAI, but a tendency for fewer primiparous ED cows to be detected in estrus and AI than multiparous cows (69.5% ± 0.04% vs. 77.1% ± 0.02%, respectively). For cows inseminated with sexed Jersey or conventional beef semen, DO cows tended to have and had more P/AI than EDAI cows (sexed, 49.2% ± 0.03% vs. 43.6% ± 0.03%; beef, 64.2% ± 0.04% vs. 56.3% ± 0.05%, respectively) and had more P/AI than EDAI+EDTAI cows (sexed, 49.1% ± 0.03% vs. 40.6% ± 0.03%; beef, 65.5% ± 0.04% vs. 56.2% ± 0.04%, respectively). Overall, 29.1% of DO cows expressed estrus with 5.0% and 24.2% of cows detected in estrus ≥24 h before and at TAI, respectively, and there was no difference in P/AI 61 ± 4 d after AI based on expression of estrus at TAI. The synchronization rate was greater for DO than EDAI cows (92.1% ± 0.01% vs. 79.2% ± 0.02%, respectively); however, synchronized DO cows had more P/AI than synchronized EDAI cows (55.0% ± 0.02% vs. 49.2% ± 0.03%, respectively). There was an interaction between BCS change from 7 to 39 ± 2 DIM and treatment on P/AI 61 ± 4 d after AI with no difference between DO and EDAI cows that lost = 0.25 (49.8% ± 0.04% vs. 51.0% ± 0.05%, respectively) or maintained or gained (55.6% ± 0.04% vs. 50.8% ± 0.05%, respectively) BCS, but within cows that lost ≥0.5 BCS, DO cows had more P/AI than EDAI cows (54.1% ± 0.04% vs. 36.1% ± 0.04%, respectively). In conclusion, submission of lactating Jersey cows to a Double-Ovsynch protocol for first insemination increased insemination rate and fertility to first insemination compared with AI after a detected estrus regardless of semen type and expression of estrus, particularly for cows with excessive postpartum BCS loss.

The association between insemination eligibility and reproductive performance of nulliparous heifers on subsequent body weight and milk production of primiparous Holstein cows.

The objective of this retrospective cohort study was to determine the association between insemination eligibility and reproductive performance of nulliparous heifers with subsequent body weight (BW) at 30 d in milk (DIM) and milk production at wk 4, 8, and 12 of lactation of primiparous cows. The final data set included 1,849 primiparous Holstein cows from a commercial dairy herd. Data extracted from a commercial dairy herd management software program included parent average predicted transmitting abilities (PTA), bovine respiratory disease (BRD) incidence, pregnancies per artificial insemination (P/AI) at first insemination as nulliparous heifers, BW at 30 DIM, percent mature body weight (%MBW), and mean weekly milk production at wk 4, 8, and 12 of lactation. Heifers were eligible for first insemination at 380 d of age and were detected in estrus and artificially inseminated with sexed semen. Quartiles based on BW at 30 DIM and %MBW were created in ascending order as follows: Q1 (lightest; n = 462), Q2 (light-moderate; n = 456), Q3 (moderate; n = 472), and Q4 (heaviest; n = 459). Only Q3 and Q4 cows achieved ≥85% MBW postcalving based on the herd MBW of 686.2 kg. The incidence of BRD during heifer development was greatest for Q1 cows, and Q1 cows had fewer days on feed as heifers than Q4 cows, resulting in a shorter growth period to achieve ≥85% MBW postcalving. Overall, Q1 cows had a greater PTA for daughter pregnancy rate and heifer conception rate than Q4 cows, which was associated with approximately 26 percentage points more P/AI at first insemination as heifers for Q1 than for Q4 cows. Finally, Q1 cows yielded approximately 5 kg per cow/d less milk than Q4 cows. Thus, insemination eligibility and reproductive performance of heifers, calfhood BRD incidence, and genetic potential for reproductive performance were associated with BW at 30 DIM and milk production at wk 4, 8, and 12 of lactation of primiparous cows.

Characterization of semen type prevalence and allocation in Holstein and Jersey females in the United States.

Our objective was to characterize semen type prevalence and allocation to inseminate US Holstein and Jersey females by year, parity, service number, and herd size. A secondary objective was to identify the prevalence of beef breed sires selected to create beef × Holstein and beef × Jersey crossbred calves. The final data set included 8,244,653 total inseminations of 4,880,752 Holstein females across 9,155 herds, and 435,267 total inseminations of 266,058 Jersey females across 2,759 herds from October 2019 to July 2021. This data set represents approximately 42 and 27% of the total dairy cows and heifers, respectively, across approximately 40% of the total licensed dairy herds in the continental United States. Holstein and Jersey females were inseminated with 1 of 4 semen types: (1) beef, (2) conventional, (3) sexed, or (4) other dairy. The top 4 beef breeds used to produce beef × Holstein and beef × Jersey crossbred calves, respectively, were Angus (55.1 and 39.1%), Limousin (13.9, and 23.5%), Simmental (11.7 and 20.5%), and Crossbreed Beef (11.3 and 4.8%). From 2019 to 2021, the use of sexed semen to inseminate Holstein and Jersey females increased from 11.0 and 24.5% to 17.7 and 32.1%, respectively, and the use of beef semen to inseminate Holstein and Jersey females increased from 18.2 and 11.4% to 26.1 and 21.2%, respectively. The use of beef semen to inseminate Holstein and Jersey females increased with increasing parity and service number, whereas the use of sexed semen decreased with increasing parity and service number supporting that farmers used sexed semen more aggressively in higher fertility and younger females with greater genetic merit. Overall, the increase in sexed and beef semen inseminations was driven primarily by larger herds. In conclusion, sexed and beef semen inseminations in US Holstein and Jersey females increased from 2019 to 2021 and was allocated differentially based on parity and service number. This increase was driven primarily by larger dairy herds possibly due to differences in reproductive performance and economies of scale.

A stochastic animal life cycle simulation model for a whole dairy farm system model: Assessing the value of combined heifer and lactating dairy cow reproductive management programs.

This analysis introduces a stochastic herd simulation model and evaluates the estimated reproductive and economic performance of combinations of reproductive management programs for both heifers and lactating cows. The model simulates the growth, reproductive performance, production, and culling for individual animals and integrates individual animal outcomes to represent herd dynamics daily. The model has an extensible structure, allowing for future modification and expansion, and has been integrated into the Ruminant Farm Systems model, a holistic dairy farm simulation model. The herd simulation model was used to compare outcomes of 10 reproductive management scenarios based on common practices on US farms with combinations of estrous detection (ED) and artificial insemination (AI), synchronized estrous detection (synch-ED) and AI, timed AI (TAI, 5-d CIDR-Synch) programs for heifers; and ED, a combination of ED and TAI (ED-TAI, Presynch-Ovsynch), and TAI (Double-Ovsynch) with or without ED during the reinsemination period for lactating cows. The simulation was run for a 1,000-cow (milking and dry) herd for 7 yr, and we used the outcomes from the final year to evaluate results. The model accounted for incomes from milk, sold calves, and culled heifers and cows, as well as costs from breeding, AI, semen, pregnancy diagnosis, and calf, heifer, and cow feed. We found that the interaction between heifer and lactating dairy cow reproductive management programs influences herd economic performance primarily due to heifer rearing costs and replacement heifer supply. The greatest net return (NR) was achieved when combining heifer TAI and cow TAI without ED during the reinsemination period, whereas the lowest NR was obtained when combining heifer synch-ED with cow ED.

The high fertility cycle.

The development of fertility programs and their adoption by the dairy industry over the past decade is a major driving factor underlying the dramatic increase in reproductive performance in lactating dairy cows during the past 20 years. Another major driving factor underlying this increase in reproductive performance is what we describe in this minireview as the "high fertility cycle." We now know that reproductive performance and the incidence of certain periparturient health events are interrelated. The high fertility cycle describes the relationship between body condition score (BCS) change during the periparturient period and postpartum health events and subsequent reproductive performance in which lactating dairy cows that establish pregnancy by 130 d in milk have shorter calving intervals and thereby gain less BCS during the current lactation and dry off and calve at a lower BCS (2.75 to 3.0) than cows with a longer lactation. After calving, these cows undergo less BCS loss, experience fewer health issues, have greater fertility at first insemination, and have reduced early pregnancy losses after establishment of pregnancy and thereby become pregnant before 130 d in milk. This minireview overviews these relationships and highlights the key concepts underlying the high fertility cycle. Future randomized, controlled experiments are needed to causally link these relationships between BCS change and fertility in lactating dairy cows.

Symposium review: The implications of spontaneous versus synchronized ovulations on the reproductive performance of lactating dairy cows.

Lactating dairy cows are classified as spontaneous ovulators, in which establishment of pregnancy depends on the accuracy of detection of behavioral estrus for correct timing of artificial insemination (AI). Development of the Ovsynch protocol, a hormonal protocol that synchronizes ovarian function, thereby allowing for timed AI (TAI) without the need to detect estrus, provided a management tool for increasing AI service rates but not pregnancies per AI (P/AI). A review of 7 randomized, controlled experiments that compared P/AI of cows inseminated after a detected estrus to that of cows receiving TAI after submission to Presynch-Ovsynch or Double-Ovsynch protocols supports that the newest programs for TAI yield more P/AI than cows inseminated after a detected estrus. The physiologic and endocrine mechanisms that explain how fertility programs increase P/AI are a culmination of over 20 yr of research aimed at increasing reproductive performance in lactating dairy cows. We illustrate the dramatic change in reproductive performance of US dairy cows over time by comparing the phenotypic trend in days open with the genetic trend in daughter pregnancy rate and the phenotypic trend in cow conception rate. Whereas days open increased from 1955 to 2000, days open from 2000 to 2010 dramatically decreased without a concurrent increase in the genetic trend for daughter pregnancy rate. By contrast, the dramatic decrease in days open over the past 20 yr is associated with a dramatic increase in the phenotypic trend in cow conception rate. Although many management factors affect P/AI, adoption and implementation of TAI programs that directly increase P/AI is an important component of the dramatic increase in reproductive performance in lactating dairy cows in the United States over the past 20 yr.

Comparison of reproductive management programs for submission of Holstein heifers for first insemination with conventional or sexed semen based on expression of estrus, pregnancy outcomes, and cost per pregnancy.

Our objective was to evaluate reproductive management programs for submission of Holstein heifers for first insemination with conventional or sexed semen. In experiment 1, nulliparous Holstein heifers (n = 462) were submitted to a 5-d progesterone-releasing intravaginal device (PRID)-Synch protocol [d 0, GnRH + PRID; d 5, PGF2α - PRID; d 6, PGF2α; d 8, GnRH + TAI] and were randomly assigned for PRID removal on d 5 or 6 of the protocol followed by timed artificial insemination (TAI) with conventional semen. Delaying PRID removal decreased early expression of estrus before scheduled TAI (0.9 vs. 12.2%), and pregnancies per AI (P/AI) did not differ between treatments. In experiment 2, nulliparous Holstein heifers (n = 736) from 3 commercial farms were randomized within farm to 1 of 3 treatments for first AI with sexed semen: (1) CIDR5 [d -6, GnRH + controlled internal drug release (CIDR); d -1, PGF2α - CIDR; d 0, PGF2α; d 2, GnRH + TAI]; (2) CIDR6 (d -6, GnRH + CIDR; d -1, PGF2α; d 0, PGF2α - CIDR; d 2, GnRH + TAI); and (3) EDAI (PGF2α on d 0 followed by once-daily estrous detection and AI). Delaying CIDR removal decreased early expression of estrus before scheduled TAI (0.004 vs. 27.8%); however, CIDR5 heifers tended to have more P/AI at 35 (53 vs. 45 vs. 46%) and 64 (52 vs. 45 vs. 45%) days after AI than CIDR6 and EDAI heifers, respectively. Overall, CIDR5 and CIDR6 heifers had fewer days to first AI and pregnancy than EDAI heifers which resulted in less feed costs than EDAI heifers due to fewer days on feed until pregnancy. Despite greater hormonal treatment costs for CIDR5 heifers, costs per pregnancy were $16.66 less for CIDR5 than for EDAI heifers. In conclusion, delaying PRID removal by 24 h within a 5-d PRID-Synch protocol in experiment 1 suppressed early expression of estrus before TAI, and P/AI for heifers inseminated with conventional semen did not differ between treatments. By contrast, although delaying CIDR removal by 24 h within a 5-CIDR-Synch protocol in experiment 2 suppressed early expression of estrus before TAI, delaying CIDR removal by 24 h tended to decrease P/AI for heifers inseminated with sexed semen. Further, submission of heifers to a 5-d CIDR-Synch protocol for first AI tended to increase P/AI and decrease the cost per pregnancy compared with EDAI heifers.

Economic impact of adding a second prostaglandin F2α treatment during an Ovsynch protocol using a meta-analytical assessment and a stochastic simulation model.

Incomplete luteal regression after treatment with a single dose of PGF2α during an Ovsynch protocol decreases fertility to timed artificial insemination (AI). An additional treatment with PGF2α 24 h after the first dose has been recommended to increase the proportion of cows with complete luteal regression and subsequent pregnancy per AI (P/AI). This is, however, associated with additional costs of labor and product. The objective was to develop a stochastic partial budget model to estimate the economic impact of an additional PGF2α treatment on d 8 during an Ovsynch protocol in primiparous and multiparous cows. A systematic review of the literature and a meta-analytical assessment was performed to evaluate the effects of adding a second PGF2α treatment during the Ovsynch protocol on P/AI in lactating dairy cows. Thirteen randomized controlled experiments from 11 published manuscripts including 9,735 cows were used. We were able to retrieve information regarding parity from 9 experiments from 7 manuscripts (2,367 primiparous cows and 5,356 multiparous cows). An additional dose of PGF2α yielded a 5.60 risk difference in P/AI [95% confidence interval (CI) = 3.69-7.52]. In primiparous cows and multiparous cows, an additional dose of PGF2α yielded a 4.24 (95% CI = 0.31-8.17) and a 5.31 risk difference in P/AI (95% CI = 2.75-7.87). Revenue was based on the associated improvement in reproductive performance because of an increase in P/AI multiplied by the value of a pregnancy (PGVAL). Median PGVAL was €252, ranging from €42 (fifth percentile) to €623 (95th percentile). Based on parity, median PGVAL was €205 (5th percentile = €43; 95th percentile = €651) and €264 (5th percentile = €88; 95th percentile = €598) for primiparous (n = 1,252) and multiparous cows (n = 3,003), respectively. Using a stochastic simulation model with 10,000 iterations, adding a second PGF2α dose on d 8 was more profitable (€7.76/cow; 5th percentile = €0.01; 95th percentile = €29.40) compared with a single PGF2α administration on d 7. In primiparous cows, adding a second PGF2α treatment was more profitable (€1.99/cow; 5th percentile = -€3.08; 95th percentile = €22.52) in 67% of all simulated iterations. In multiparous cows, adding a second PGF2α treatment was more profitable (€7.92/cow; 5th percentile = -€0.09; 95th percentile = €28.22) in 95% of all simulated iterations. In conclusion, there was a clear benefit of an additional PGF2α treatment during the Ovsynch protocol on P/AI (+5.6 percentage units). Despite additional costs for hormones and labor, an additional treatment with PGF2α on d 8 was more profitable in 95% of all scenarios because of the associated increase in fertility. It turned out, however, that adding a second PGF2α treatment was more profitable in multiparous cows compared with primiparous cows.

Replacing the first gonadotropin-releasing hormone treatment in an Ovsynch protocol with human chorionic gonadotropin decreased pregnancies per artificial insemination in lactating dairy cows.

Our objective was to compare the effect of treatment with GnRH at the first treatment (G1) of the Breeding-Ovsynch portion of a Double-Ovsynch (DO) protocol with human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) on pregnancies per artificial insemination (P/AI) in lactating dairy cows. In experiment 1, lactating dairy cows (n = 1,932) submitted to a DO protocol for first timed artificial insemination (TAI) on 2 commercial dairy farms were blocked by parity (primiparous vs. multiparous) and were randomly assigned to receive 100 µg of GnRH versus 2,500 IU of hCG at G1. Overall, P/AI 39 d after TAI for cows inseminated with sexed dairy semen was greater for cows treated with GnRH than for cows treated with hCG within each parity (primiparous: 42.6% vs. 38.2%; multiparous: 39.4% vs. 30.3%). Similarly, P/AI 39 d after TAI for multiparous cows inseminated with conventional beef semen tended to be greater for cows treated with GnRH than for cows treated with hCG (41.1% vs. 34.3%). In experiment 2, lactating Holstein cows (n = 43) were blocked by parity and were randomly assigned to the treatment protocols described for experiment 1. Ovaries were evaluated with transrectal ultrasonography immediately before treatment and 24, 28, 32, 36, and 40 h after treatment to assess time from treatment to ovulation, and blood samples were collected immediately before G1, at the first PGF2α treatment, 8 and 16 h later, at the second PGF2α treatment, 8 and 16 h later, at the second GnRH (G2) treatment, and at TAI to compare luteolysis based on serum progesterone (P4) concentrations. Although mean (± standard error of the mean) time from treatment to ovulation was approximately 2 h greater for cows treated with hCG than for cows treated with GnRH (33.7 ± 0.6 vs. 31.5 ± 0.6 h), P4 concentrations during luteolysis and the proportion of cows with complete luteolysis (P4 <0.4 ng/mL at G2) did not differ between treatments. We conclude that replacing 100 µg of GnRH with 2,500 IU of hCG at G1 of a DO protocol decreased fertility to TAI in lactating dairy cows but did not affect the rate or completeness of luteolysis despite the increased interval from treatment to ovulation.

Effect of dose and timing of prostaglandin F2α treatments during a 7-d Ovsynch protocol on progesterone concentration at the end of the protocol and pregnancy outcomes in lactating Holstein cows.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of two prostaglandin F2α (PGF) treatments 24 h apart (500 µg of cloprostenol) and treatment with a double PGF dose on d 7 (1000 µg of cloprostenol) during a 7-d Ovsynch protocol on progesterone (P4) concentration and pregnancy per artificial insemination (P/AI) in lactating Holstein cows. We hypothesized that treatment leads to a decreased P4 concentration at the second GnRH treatment (G2) and an increase in P/AI compared to the traditional 7-d Ovsynch protocol. A secondary hypothesis was that the treatment effect is influenced by the presence of a corpus luteum (CL) at the first GnRH treatment (G1). Two experiments were conducted on 8 commercial dairy farms in Germany. Once a week, cows from both experiments were assigned in a consecutive manner to receive: (1) Ovsynch (control: GnRH; 7 d, PGF; 9 d, GnRH), (2) Ovsynch with a double PGF dose (GDPG: GnRH; 7 d, 2xPGF; 9 d, GnRH), or (3) Ovsynch with a second PGF treatment 24 h later (GPPG: GnRH; 7 d, PGF; 8 d, PGF; 32 h, GnRH). All cows received timed AI (TAI) approximately 16 h after G2. Pregnancy diagnosis was performed by transrectal palpation (38 ± 3 d after TAI, experiment 1) or transrectal ultrasonography (35 ± 7 d after TAI, experiment 2). Whereas farms from experiment 1 used a Presynch-Ovsynch protocol (PGF, 14 d later PGF, 12 d later GnRH, 7 d later PGF, 2 d later GnRH, and 16-18 h later TAI) to facilitate first postpartum TAI, no presynchronization protocol was used on farms from experiment 2. In experiment 1, we enrolled 1581 lactating dairy cows (60 experimental units) from 2 dairy farms. At G2, blood samples were collected from a subsample of cows (n = 491; 16 experimental units) to determine P4 concentration at G2. In experiment 2, we enrolled 1979 lactating dairy cows (252 experimental units) from 6 dairy farms. Transrectal ultrasonography was performed to determine the presence or absence of a CL at G1. In experiment 1, treatment affected P/AI (P = 0.01) and P/AI was greater for GDPG (38.2%) and GPPG (38.9%) than for control cows (29.8%). Both, GDPG and GPPG cows had decreased P4 concentration at G2 compared with control cows (P < 0.01). Whereas both treatments increased the percentage of cows with very low P4 concentration (0.00-0.09 ng/mL) at G2, only the GPPG treatment decreased the percentage of cows with high P4 concentration (≥0.6 ng/mL) at G2 compared to the control group. In experiment 2, P/AI was greater for GPPG (37.4%) than for control cows (31.0%; P = 0.03) and tended to be greater than for GDPG cows (31.8%; P = 0.05). Cows from the GDPG group had similar (P = 0.77) P/AI compared to the control group. Pregnancy per AI did not differ between cows with a CL at G1 and cows without a CL at G1 (34.1% vs. 32.6%; P = 0.50). There was no interaction between treatment and presence of a CL at G1 on P/AI (P = 0.61). Combining data from the 2 experiments but excluding cows from experiment 1 receiving presynchronization before first TAI (n = 2573; 312 experimental units), P/AI was greater for GPPG (40.3%; P < 0.01) than for control (31.8%) and GDPG cows (33.4%). Between GDPG and control cows, P/AI did not differ (P = 0.46). We conclude that overall the addition of a second PGF treatment on d 8 during a 7-d Ovsynch protocol increased P/AI compared to the traditional 7-d Ovsynch including a single PGF dose on d 7 and to a double PGF dose on d 7. Doubling the PGF dose on d 7 in a 7-d Ovsynch protocol did not affect P/AI. Use of a presynchronization protocol, however, seems to influence the effect of a dose frequency modification of PGF treatment in an Ovsynch protocol. Presynchronized cows receiving first postpartum TAI had similarly increased P/AI treated with a double PGF dose compared with treatment with a second PGF dose. Future studies need to elucidate whether the treatment effect is modified by presynchronization of the first postpartum TAI.

Effect of route of administration of dinoprost tromethamine on plasma profiles of 13,14-dihydro-15-keto-prostaglandin F2α and progesterone in lactating Holstein cows.

Lutalyse HighCon (dinoprost tromethamine; Zoetis) has been approved for use both intramuscularly and subcutaneously in lactating dairy cows, although the effect of route of administration on circulating 13,14-dihydro-15-keto-prostaglandin F2α (PGFM), the metabolite of PGF2α, has not been evaluated. Multiparous, lactating Holstein cows were submitted to an Ovsynch protocol in which the last GnRH treatment (G2) was designated as d 0. Cows were fitted with indwelling jugular catheters on d 6 and administered 25 mg of dinoprost tromethamine (2 mL of Lutalyse HighCon) on d 7 either subcutaneously in the neck (SC; n = 6) or intramuscularly in the semitendinosus muscle (IM; n = 6). Blood samples were collected every 15 min after treatment for 1.75 h, then every 2 h for 48 h, and at 60 and 72 h, with the last time point corresponding to when cows would have received timed AI at 72 h within an Ovsynch protocol. Circulating PGFM concentrations were greater for SC than for IM cows from 15 to 90 min after treatment, which resulted in a greater area under the PGFM curve during the first 90 min after treatment (means ± SEM; 1,664 ± 129 pg·h/mL vs. 1,146 ± 177 pg·h/mL for SC vs. IM cows, respectively). This resulted in complete luteolysis in all but one cow in the SC treatment at 56 h, when GnRH would have been administered if dinoprost tromethamine had been administered as part of an Ovsynch protocol for timed AI. For cows that underwent complete luteal regression, circulating P4 did not differ between treatments at any time point. Thus, although SC cows had increased circulating PGFM 15 to 90 min after treatment, there was no difference in circulating P4 during induced luteolysis based on route of dinoprost tromethamine administration.

Human chorionic gonadotropin dose response for induction of ovulation 7 days after a synchronized ovulation in lactating Holstein cows.

Our objective was to assess the effect of treatment with GnRH or 4 increasing doses of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) on the ovulatory response of a first-wave dominant follicle and subsequent plasma progesterone (P4) concentrations. Lactating Holstein cows were blocked by parity (primiparous vs. multiparous) and randomly assigned to receive no treatment (control, CON; n = 147), 100 µg of GnRH (n = 144), or 1,000 (n = 138), 2,000 (n = 144), 2,500 (n = 142), or 3,300 (n = 139) IU of hCG 7 d after the last GnRH treatment (G2) of a Double-Ovsynch (DO) or Resynch protocol. Blood samples were collected and ovaries were evaluated with transrectal ultrasonography immediately before treatment and 7 d later to assess serum P4 concentrations and ovulatory response to treatment. Data were analyzed using the MIXED and GLIMMIX procedures of SAS (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC). Overall, ovulatory response differed and was 4.8, 79.0, 77.4, 88.9, 92.9, and 95.6% for CON, GnRH, 1,000-, 2,000-, 2,500-, and 3,300-IU hCG treatments, respectively. The increase in plasma P4 concentrations from 7 to 14 d after G2 differed among treatments and was 3.5, 5.9, 5.7, 6.6, 7.0, and 6.5 ng/mL for CON, GnRH, 1,000-, 2,000-, 2,500-, and 3,300-IU hCG treatments, respectively. In conclusion, lactating Holstein cows treated 7 d after G2 with 100 µg of GnRH or 1,000 IU of hCG had similar ovulatory responses (~78%), whereas cows treated with 2,000, 2,500, or 3,300 IU of hCG had increased ovulatory responses (~92%). Ovulatory response of cows treated with 2,000 or 2,500 IU of hCG did not differ, whereas the ovulatory response after 3,300 IU was greater than that after 2,000 IU of hCG. Plasma P4 concentrations and luteal volume 7 d after treatment were increased compared with those of untreated control cows.

Short communication: Effect of timing of induction of ovulation relative to timed artificial insemination using sexed semen on pregnancy outcomes in primiparous Holstein cows.

Our objective was to determine the effect of increasing the interval from induction of ovulation to timed artificial insemination (TAI) on fertility by decreasing the interval from TAI to ovulation using sexed semen within a synchronized breeding program. Our hypothesis was that induction of ovulation earlier relative to TAI would increase pregnancies per artificial insemination (P/AI). Primiparous Holstein cows from 3 commercial dairy farms in the United States were submitted to a Double-Ovsynch protocol for first service as follows: Pre-Ovsynch (GnRH; 7 d, PGF2α; 3 d, GnRH), followed 7 d later by Breeding-Ovsynch [GnRH (G1); 7 d, PGF2α; 24 h, PGF2α], followed by the last GnRH treatment (G2), which varied between treatments, and TAI. To vary the interval between G2 and TAI, cows were randomized to 2 treatments to receive G2 either 16 (G2-16; n = 373) or 24 (G2-24; n = 357) h before TAI, which was fixed at 48 h after the second PGF2α treatment of the Breeding-Ovsynch portion of the protocol. All cows were inseminated with sexed semen, and each herd used sires of their choosing, which were randomly allocated between treatments. Pregnancy diagnosis was conducted by herd veterinarians using transrectal ultrasonography. In disagreement with our hypothesis, G2-24 cows had fewer P/AI than G2-16 cows at 34 ± 3 d (44 vs. 50%) and 80 ± 17 d (41 vs. 48%) after TAI. Pregnancy loss (5 vs. 6%) and fetal sex ratio (92:8 vs. 90:10, female:male) did not differ between treatments for G2-16 and G2-24 cows, respectively. Thus, we reject our hypothesis and conclude that induction of ovulation earlier relative to TAI with sexed semen for first service after a Double-Ovsynch protocol decreased P/AI in primiparous Holstein cows.

Short communication: Economic impact among 7 reproductive programs for lactating dairy cows, including a sensitivity analysis of the cost of hormonal treatments.

Although hormonal synchronization programs can improve reproductive efficiency of dairy herds, some farmers question the economics of these programs based on the upfront cost of hormonal treatments as opposed to the economic value of the resulting reproductive performance. Our aim was to compare the economic impact of reproductive management programs that incorporate varying degrees of detection of estrus and timed artificial insemination (AI) in dairy herds with year-round calving in confinement total mixed ration systems. A reproductive economic analysis simulation model was used to compare the economic impact of pairs of reproductive management programs. We simulated sets of scenarios for 2 analyses. In the first analysis, we calculated the economic impact of switching from a Presynch-Ovsynch program to a Double-Ovsynch program that included a second PGF2α treatment during the Breeding-Ovsynch portion of the program (Double-Ovsynch+PGF). In the second analysis, we conducted a break-even analysis in which the cost of hormonal treatments was incrementally increased within various reproductive management programs. Our analyses revealed that a Double-Ovsynch+PGF program, the most intensive program evaluated, was more profitable than other programs compared, including a Presynch-Ovsynch program with 100% timed AI or a Presynch-Ovsynch program that incorporated detection of estrus, despite the higher upfront cost incurred by using more hormonal treatments. This advantage remained until the cost of hormones was increased 5 to 14 times current US market prices and 2 to 6 times current European market prices. The cost of GnRH had a greater impact on net profit gain than the cost of PGF2α. In conclusion, more intensive reproductive programs that use more hormonal treatments but result in substantially increased reproductive performance are more profitable than less intensive programs and remain so even if hormone prices are unusually high.

Effect of manipulating progesterone before timed artificial insemination on reproductive and endocrine outcomes in high-producing multiparous Holstein cows.

Our objective was to evaluate the effect of manipulating progesterone (P4) concentrations before timed artificial insemination (TAI) on reproductive and endocrine outcomes in high-producing Holstein cows. Multiparous lactating Holstein cows (n = 80) were synchronized for first TAI using a Double-Ovsynch protocol and were randomly assigned to receive 25 mg of PGF2α 1 d after the first GnRH treatment of the Breeding-Ovsynch protocol that included a once-used P4 insert (low-P4 group) or to receive 2 new P4 inserts during the Breeding-Ovsynch protocol (high-P4 group). Blood samples were collected thrice weekly from -10 to 32 d relative to TAI for all cows and from 32 to 67 d after TAI for pregnant cows and were analyzed for P4 and pregnancy-specific protein B (PSPB) concentrations. Expression of IFNτ-stimulated gene 15 (ISG15) was assessed in blood leukocytes 18 and 20 d after TAI. As expected, P4 concentrations were greater for high-P4 cows than for low-P4 cows from 3 to 8 d before TAI. Incidence of double ovulation was 3-fold greater for low-P4 cows than for high-P4 cows (33 vs. 10%), which resulted in more twin pregnancies 32 d after TAI for low-P4 cows than for high-P4 cows (29 vs. 0%). Low-P4 cows had larger preovulatory follicles at the last GnRH treatment of the Double-Ovsynch protocol and greater P4 concentrations than high-P4 cows after TAI. Relative expression of ISG15 mRNA 18 and 20 d after TAI was greater for low-P4 cows than for high-P4 cows and for pregnant cows than for nonpregnant cows. Overall, PSPB concentrations tended to be greater for low-P4 cows than for high-P4 cows, and pregnant cows had greater P4 concentrations than nonpregnant cows. In summary, cows with low P4 before TAI had increased preovulatory follicle diameter, PSPB concentrations, relative expression of ISG15 mRNA 18 and 20 d after TAI, double ovulations, and twinning compared with cows with high P4 before TAI. Increasing P4 before TAI may effectively decrease double ovulation and twinning in high-producing multiparous Holstein cows.

Effect of treatment with human chorionic gonadotropin 7 days after artificial insemination or at the time of embryo transfer on reproductive outcomes in nulliparous Holstein heifers.

Our objective was to assess the effect of treatment with human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) 7 d after artificial insemination (AI) or at the time of in vitro-fertilized (IVF) embryo transfer on reproductive outcomes, including progesterone (P4), interferon-tau stimulated gene 15 (ISG15), pregnancy-specific protein B (PSPB), and pregnancies per AI (P/AI) or pregnancies per embryo transfer (P/ET), in nulliparous Holstein heifers. Heifers in experiment 1 were randomly assigned to receive no treatment (control; n = 129) or 2,000 IU of hCG 7 d after AI to a detected estrus (estrus = experimental d 0; hCG; n = 132). Heifers in experiment 2 were randomly assigned to receive no treatment (control; n = 143) or 2,000 IU of hCG (hCG; n = 148) at transfer of an IVF embryo 7 d after the last GnRH treatment of a 5-d controlled internal drug release-synch protocol (last GnRH = experimental d 0). Blood samples were collected from a subgroup of heifers (experiment 1, n = 82; experiment 2, n = 104) at d 7, 11, 18, 20, 25, 28, and 32, and blood samples from heifers diagnosed pregnant were collected on d 35, 39, 46, 53, 60, and 67. Blood samples were assayed for P4 by RIA and for PSPB by ELISA, and expression of ISG15 was assessed in mRNA isolated from blood leukocytes on d 18 and 20. Data were analyzed by ANOVA and logistic regression using the MIXED and GLIMMIX procedures. In both experiments, treatment with hCG increased P4 concentrations from d 11 to 32; however, treatment did not affect P/AI or P/ET at d 32 or 67, PSPB concentrations from d 11 to 67 of pregnancy, or relative ISG15 mRNA concentrations on d 18 or 20. Heifers diagnosed not pregnant at d 32 in experiment 2 with an extended luteal phase (>20 d) and treated with hCG had greater relative ISG15 mRNA concentrations on d 20 than control heifers. Treatment with hCG did not affect pregnancy loss in experiment 1, whereas heifers treated with hCG at the time of IVF embryo transfer had fewer pregnancy losses from d 32 to 67 than control heifers. We concluded that treatment with 2,000 IU of hCG 7 d after AI or at the time of embryo transfer increased P4 concentrations without affecting P/AI or P/ET in nulliparous Holstein heifers.

Short communication: Effect of adding a second prostaglandin F2α injection during the Ovsynch protocol on luteal regression and fertility in lactating dairy cows: A meta-analysis.

Incomplete luteal regression after treatment with a single dose of prostaglandin F2α during an Ovsynch protocol decreases fertility to timed artificial insemination (TAI). To increase the proportion of cows with complete luteal regression and subsequently pregnancy per artificial insemination (P/AI), an additional treatment with PGF2α 24 h after the first has been recommended. A systematic review of the literature and meta-analytical assessment were performed with the objective of evaluating the effects of adding a second PGF2α treatment during the Ovsynch protocol on luteal regression and reproductive performance in lactating dairy cows. Based on the heterogeneity among the experimental treatments, a fixed or a random effects meta-analysis was conducted. Reproductive outcomes of interest were luteal regression at the end of the Ovsynch protocol, and P/AI measured 32 to 39 d after TAI. Seven randomized controlled experiments from 6 published manuscripts including 5,356 cows with the primary objective to evaluate the effect of an additional treatment with PGF2α during the Ovsynch protocol on P/AI were used. Information regarding luteal regression at the end of the Ovsynch protocol was available for 1,856 cows. Adding a second PGF2α treatment on d 8 during the Ovsynch protocol increased the relative risk (RR) of complete luteal regression at the end of the Ovsynch protocol (RR = 1.14; 95% confidence interval = 1.10 to 1.17) using a fixed effects model and the RR for pregnancy (RR = 1.14; 95% confidence interval = 1.06 to 1.22) 32 d after TAI using a fixed effects model. No heterogeneity was observed among the 6 manuscripts regarding complete luteal regression and P/AI. In summary, there was a clear benefit of an additional PGF2α treatment during the Ovsynch protocol on luteal regression (+11.6 percentage units) and on P/AI (+4.6 percentage units).

An economic evaluation of management strategies to mitigate the negative effect of twinning in dairy herds.

Our objectives were to develop an economic model to estimate the economic impact of twinning in dairy cows and to evaluate management strategies to mitigate the negative economic impact of twinning in dairy herds. A probabilistic tree considering spontaneous embryo reduction, early pregnancy loss, abortion, metritis, retained placenta, and culling rate at 120 d of the second, at the end of the second, and at the end of the third lactation was developed for a single pregnancy; we also developed 3 management options upon diagnosis of a twin pregnancy: (1) do nothing, (2) induce abortion using PGF2α, or (3) attempt manual embryo reduction. A value was given to each branch of the tree by simulating cow states on a farm for 1,400 d to encompass 4 consecutive lactations. The incomes considered in the simulations included milk income over feed cost, income from calves, and slaughter value upon culling. The expenses taken into account depending on each branch included additional inseminations and synchronization protocols, embryo reduction, induction of abortion, replacement heifers, and costs due to metritis and retained placenta. The gross value for a singleton pregnancy and the 3 management options upon diagnosis of a twin pregnancy were calculated by adding the value of all braches multiplied by their probability. The costs for the 3 management options were calculated by subtracting its gross value minus the gross value of a singleton pregnancy. The negative economic impact of a twin pregnancy ranged from $97 to $225 depending on the type of twin pregnancy (unilateral vs. bilateral), parity, and DIM when the twin pregnancy occurred. The overall negative economic impact of twinning on dairy farm profitability in the United States was estimated to be $96 million per year. Attempting manual embryo reduction early during gestation upon diagnosis of a twin pregnancy was the optimal management strategy for mitigating the negative economic impact of twinning under a wide variety of scenarios.