Elucidation of the Gemcitabine Transporters of Escherichia coli K-12 and Gamma-Proteobacteria Linked to Gemcitabine-Related Chemoresistance.

Gemcitabine (2',2'-difluoro-2'-deoxycytidine), a widely used anticancer drug, is considered a gold standard in treating aggressive pancreatic cancers. Gamma-proteobacteria that colonize the pancreatic tumors contribute to chemoresistance against gemcitabine by metabolizing the drug to a less active and deaminated form. The gemcitabine transporters of these bacteria are unknown to date. Furthermore, there is no complete knowledge of the gemcitabine transporters in Escherichia coli or any other related proteobacteria. In this study, we investigate the complement of gemcitabine transporters in E. coli K-12 and two common chemoresistance-related bacteria (Klebsiella pneumoniae and Citrobacter freundii). We found that E. coli K-12 has two high-affinity gemcitabine transporters with distinct specificity properties, namely, NupC and NupG, whereas the gemcitabine transporters of C. freundii and K. pneumoniae include the NupC and NupG orthologs, functionally indistinguishable from their counterparts, and, in K. pneumoniae, one additional NupC variant, designated KpNupC2. All these bacterial transporters have a higher affinity for gemcitabine than their human counterparts. The highest affinity (KM 2.5-3.0 µΜ) is exhibited by NupGs of the bacteria-specific nucleoside-H+ symporter (NHS) family followed by NupCs (KM 10-13 µΜ) of the concentrative nucleoside transporter (CNT) family, 15-100 times higher than the affinities reported for the human gemcitabine transporter hENT1/SLC29A1, which is primarily associated with gemcitabine uptake in the pancreatic adenocarcinoma cells. Our results offer a basis for further insight into the role of specific bacteria in drug availability within tumors and for understanding the structure-function differences of bacterial and human drug transporters.

Identification of New Specificity Determinants in Bacterial Purine Nucleobase Transporters based on an Ancestral Sequence Reconstruction Approach.

The relation of sequence with specificity in membrane transporters is challenging to explore. Most relevant studies until now rely on comparisons of present-day homologs. In this work, we study a set of closely related transporters by employing an evolutionary, ancestral-reconstruction approach and reveal unexpected new specificity determinants. We analyze a monophyletic group represented by the xanthine-specific XanQ of Escherichia coli in the Nucleobase-Ascorbate Transporter/Nucleobase-Cation Symporter-2 (NAT/NCS2) family. We reconstructed AncXanQ, the putative common ancestor of this clade, expressed it in E. coli K-12, and found that, in contrast to XanQ, it encodes a high-affinity permease for both xanthine and guanine, which also recognizes adenine, hypoxanthine, and a range of analogs. AncXanQ conserves all binding-site residues of XanQ and differs substantially in only five intramembrane residues outside the binding site. We subjected both homologs to rationally designed mutagenesis and present evidence that these five residues are linked with the specificity change. In particular, we reveal Ser377 of XanQ (Gly in AncXanQ) as a major determinant. Replacement of this Ser with Gly enlarges the specificity of XanQ towards an AncXanQ-phenotype. The ortholog from Neisseria meningitidis retaining Gly at this position is also a xanthine/guanine transporter with extended substrate profile like AncXanQ. Molecular Dynamics shows that the S377G replacement tilts transmembrane helix 12 resulting in rearrangement of Phe376 relative to Phe94 in the XanQ binding pocket. This effect may rationalize the enlarged specificity. On the other hand, the specificity effect of S377G can be masked by G27S or other mutations through epistatic interactions.

Specificity profile of NAT/NCS2 purine transporters in Sinorhizobium (Ensifer) meliloti.

Sinorhizobium (Ensifer) meliloti is a model example of a soil alpha-proteobacterium which induces the formation of nitrogen-fixing symbiotic nodules on the legume roots. In contrast to all other rhizobacterial species, S. meliloti contains multiple homologs of nucleobase transporter genes that belong to NAT/NCS2 family (Nucleobase-Ascorbate Transporter/Nucleobase-Cation Symporter-2). We analyzed functionally all (six) relevant homologs of S. meliloti 1,021 using Escherichia coli K-12 as a host and found that five of them are high-affinity transporters for xanthine (SmLL9), uric acid (SmLL8, SmLL9, SmX28), adenine (SmVC3, SmYE1), guanine (SmVC3), or hypoxanthine (SmVC3). Detailed analysis of substrate profiles showed that two of these transporters display enlarged specificity (SmLL9, SmVC3). SmLL9 is closely related in sequence with the xanthine-specific XanQ of E. coli. We subjected SmLL9 to rationally designed site-directed mutagenesis and found that the role of key binding-site residues of XanQ is conserved in SmLL9, whereas a single amino-acid change (S93N) converts the xanthine/uric-acid transporter SmLL9 to a xanthine-preferring variant, due to disruption of an essential hydrogen bond with the C8 oxygen of uric acid. The results highlight the presence of several different purine nucleobase transporters in S. meliloti and imply that the purine transport might be important in the nodule symbiosis involving S. meliloti.

Molecular and physiological characterization of the monosaccharide transporters gene family in Medicago truncatula.

Monosaccharide transporters (MSTs) represent key components of the carbon transport and partitioning mechanisms in plants, mediating the cell-to-cell and long-distance distribution of a wide variety of monosaccharides. In this study, we performed a thorough structural, molecular, and physiological characterization of the monosaccharide transporter gene family in the model legume Medicago truncatula. The complete set of MST family members was identified with a novel bioinformatic approach. Prolonged darkness was used as a test condition to identify the relevant transcriptomic and metabolic responses combining MST transcript profiling and metabolomic analysis. Our results suggest that MSTs play a pivotal role in the efficient partitioning and utilization of sugars, and possibly in the mechanisms of carbon remobilization in nodules upon photosynthate-limiting conditions, as nodules are forced to acquire a new role as a source of both C and N.

ATG16L1 T300A polymorphism is associated with Crohn's disease in a Northwest Greek cohort, but ECM1 T130M and G290S polymorphisms are not associated with ulcerative colitis.

BACKGROUND: Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC) are well-described disease entities with unknown etiopathogenesis. Environmental, genetic, gut microbiota, and host immune response correlations have been implicated. The role of susceptibility gene polymorphisms, such as ATG16L1 T300A and ECM1 T130M and G290S, is well-described, although controversial findings have been reported. METHODS: Two hundred five patients with inflammatory bowel disease (108 CD and 97 UC), and 223 healthy blood donors (control group) from the Northwest Greece region were genotyped for rs2241880 (T300A), rs3737240 (T130M) and rs13294 (G290S) single nucleotide polymorphisms. Genotyping was performed using the real-time polymerase chain reaction method. RESULTS: The frequency of G allele was significantly higher in CD patients compared to the control group (P=0.029; odds ratio [OR] 1.45, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.04-2.03). Carriers of two G alleles (T300A), compared to those carrying only one, were 1.3 times more susceptible to CD (P=0.022; OR 2.45, 95%CI 1.14-5.27). In CD patients, the presence of the T300A polymorphism indicates a possible protective effect against developing a penetrating (B3) phenotype, while in UC patients, presence of the T300A polymorphism, indicates a possible protective effect against developing joint-involving extraintestinal manifestations. CONCLUSION: Our study found a significant association of the T300A polymorphism with CD susceptibility, suggesting that CD occurrence in our population has a strong genetic background, with the T300A G allele having an additive effect.

Heterologous expression of the mammalian sodium-nucleobase transporter rSNBT1 in Leishmania tarentolae.

Recombinant expression systems for mammalian membrane transport proteins are often limited by insufficient yields to support structural studies, inadequate post-translational processing and problems related with improper membrane targeting or cytotoxicity. Use of alternative expression systems and optimization of expression/purification protocols are constantly needed. In this work, we explore the applicability of the laboratory strain LEXSY of the ancient eukaryotic microorganism Leishmania tarentolae as a new expression system for mammalian nucleobase permeases of the NAT/NCS2 (Nucleobase-Ascorbate Transporter/Nucleobase-Cation Symporter-2) family. We achieved the heterologous expression of the purine-pyrimidine permease rSNBT1 from Rattus norvegicus (tagged at C-terminus with a red fluorescent protein), as confirmed by confocal microscopy and biochemical analysis of the subcellular fractions enriched in membrane proteins. The cDNA of rSNBT1 has been subcloned in a pLEXSY-sat-mrfp1vector and used to generate transgenic L. tarentolae-rsnbt1-mrfp1 strains carrying the pLEXSY-sat-rsnbt1-mrfp1 plasmid either episomally or integrated in the chromosomal DNA. The chimeric transporter rSNBT1-mRFP1 is targeted to the ER and the plasma membrane of the L. tarentolae promastigotes. The transgenic strains are capable of transporting nucleobases that are substrates of rSNBT1 but also of the endogenous L. tarentolae nucleoside/nucleobase transporters. A dipyridamole-resistant Na+-dependent fraction of uptake is attributed to the exogenously expressed rSNBT1.

Insight on specificity of uracil permeases of the NAT/NCS2 family from analysis of the transporter encoded in the pyrimidine utilization operon of Escherichia coli.

The uracil permease UraA of Escherichia coli is a structurally known prototype for the ubiquitous Nucleobase-Ascorbate Transporter (NAT) or Nucleobase-Cation Symporter-2 (NCS2) family and represents a well-defined subgroup of bacterial homologs that remain functionally unstudied. Here, we analyze four of these homologs, including RutG of E. coli which shares 35% identity with UraA and is encoded in the catabolic rut (pyrimidine utilization) operon. Using amplified expression in E. coli K-12, we show that RutG is a high-affinity permease for uracil, thymine and, at low efficiency, xanthine and recognizes also 5-fluorouracil and oxypurinol. In contrast, UraA and the homologs from Acinetobacter calcoaceticus and Aeromonas veronii are permeases specific for uracil and 5-fluorouracil. Molecular docking indicates that thymine is hindered from binding to UraA by a highly conserved Phe residue which is absent in RutG. Site-directed replacement of this Phe with Ala in the three uracil-specific homologs allows high-affinity recognition and/or transport of thymine, emulating the RutG profile. Furthermore, all RutG orthologs from enterobacteria retain an Ala at this position, implying that they can use both uracil and thymine and, possibly, xanthine as substrates and provide the bacterial cell with a range of catabolizable nucleobases.

Analysis of conserved NCS2 motifs in the Escherichia coli xanthine permease XanQ.

The xanthine permease XanQ of Escherichia coli is a paradigm for transporters of the evolutionarily broad family nucleobase-cation symporter-2 (NCS2) that transport key metabolites or anti-metabolite analogs. Most functionally known members are xanthine/uric acid transporters related to XanQ and belong to a distinct phylogenetic cluster of the family. Here, we present a comprehensive mutagenesis of XanQ based on the identification and Cys-scanning analysis of conserved sequence motifs in this cluster. Results are interpreted in relation to homology modeling on the structurally known template of UraA and previous data on critical binding-site residues in transmembrane segments (TMs) 3, 8 and 10. The current analysis, of motifs distant to the binding site, revealed a set of functionally important residues in TMs 2, 5, 12 and 13, including seven irreplaceable ones, of which six are Gly residues in the gate domain (159, 369, 370, 383, 409) and in TM2 (Gly-71), and one is polar (Gln-75). Gln-75 (TM2) is probably crucial in a network of hydrogen-bonding interactions in the middle of the core domain involving another essential residue, Asp-304 (TM9). Although the two residues are irreplaceable individually, combinatorial replacement of Gln-75 with Asn and of Asp-304 with Glu rescues significant transport activity.

Functional identification of the hypoxanthine/guanine transporters YjcD and YgfQ and the adenine transporters PurP and YicO of Escherichia coli K-12.

The evolutionarily broad family nucleobase-cation symporter-2 (NCS2) encompasses transporters that are conserved in binding site architecture but diverse in substrate selectivity. Putative purine transporters of this family fall into one of two homology clusters: COG2233, represented by well studied xanthine and/or uric acid permeases, and COG2252, consisting of transporters for adenine, guanine, and/or hypoxanthine that remain unknown with respect to structure-function relationships. We analyzed the COG2252 genes of Escherichia coli K-12 with homology modeling, functional overexpression, and mutagenesis and showed that they encode high affinity permeases for the uptake of adenine (PurP and YicO) or guanine and hypoxanthine (YjcD and YgfQ). The two pairs of paralogs differ clearly in their substrate and ligand preferences. Of 25 putative inhibitors tested, PurP and YicO recognize with low micromolar affinity N(6)-benzoyladenine, 2,6-diaminopurine, and purine, whereas YjcD and YgfQ recognize 1-methylguanine, 8-azaguanine, 6-thioguanine, and 6-mercaptopurine and do not recognize any of the PurP ligands. Furthermore, the permeases PurP and YjcD were subjected to site-directed mutagenesis at highly conserved sites of transmembrane segments 1, 3, 8, 9, and 10, which have been studied also in COG2233 homologs. Residues irreplaceable for uptake activity or crucial for substrate selectivity were found at positions occupied by similar role amino acids in the Escherichia coli xanthine- and uric acid-transporting homologs (XanQ and UacT, respectively) and predicted to be at or around the binding site. Our results support the contention that the distantly related transporters of COG2233 and COG2252 use topologically similar side chain determinants to dictate their function and the distinct purine selectivity profiles.

Hepatotoxic seafood poisoning (HSP) due to microcystins: a threat from the ocean?

Cyanobacterial blooms are a major and growing problem for freshwater ecosystems worldwide that increasingly concerns public health, with an average of 60% of blooms known to be toxic. The most studied cyanobacterial toxins belong to a family of cyclic heptapeptide hepatotoxins, called microcystins. The microcystins are stable hydrophilic cyclic heptapeptides with a potential to cause cell damage following cellular uptake via organic anion-transporting proteins (OATP). Their intracellular biologic effects presumably involve inhibition of catalytic subunits of protein phosphatases (PP1 and PP2A) and glutathione depletion. The microcystins produced by cyanobacteria pose a serious problem to human health, if they contaminate drinking water or food. These toxins are collectively responsible for human fatalities, as well as continued and widespread poisoning of wild and domestic animals. Although intoxications of aquatic organisms by microcystins have been widely documented for freshwater ecosystems, such poisonings in marine environments have only occasionally been reported. Moreover, these poisonings have been attributed to freshwater cyanobacterial species invading seas of lower salinity (e.g., the Baltic) or to the discharge of freshwater microcystins into the ocean. However, recent data suggest that microcystins are also being produced in the oceans by a number of cosmopolitan marine species, so that Hepatotoxic Seafood Poisoning (HSP) is increasingly recognized as a major health risk that follows consumption of contaminated seafood.

Insights to the evolution of Nucleobase-Ascorbate Transporters (NAT/NCS2 family) from the Cys-scanning analysis of xanthine permease XanQ.

The nucleobase-ascorbate transporter or nucleobase-cation symporter-2 (NAT/NCS2) family is one of the five known families of transporters that use nucleobases as their principal substrates and the only one that is evolutionarily conserved and widespread in all major taxa of organisms. The family is a typical paradigm of a group of related transporters for which conservation in sequence and overall structure correlates with high functional variations between homologs. Strikingly, the human homologs fail to recognize nucleobases or related cytotoxic compounds. This fact allows important biomedical perspectives for translation of structure-function knowledge on this family to the rational design of targeted antimicrobial purine-related drugs. To date, very few homologs have been characterized experimentally in detail and only two, the xanthine permease XanQ and the uric acid/xanthine permease UapA, have been studied extensively with site-directed mutagenesis. Recently, the high-resolution structure of a related homolog, the uracil permease UraA, has been solved for the first time with crystallography. In this review, I summarize current knowledge and emphasize how the systematic Cys-scanning mutagenesis of XanQ, in conjunction with existing biochemical and genetic evidence for UapA and the x-ray structure of UraA, allow insight on the structure-function and evolutionary relationships of this important group of transporters. The review is organized in three parts referring to (I) the theory of use of Cys-scanning approaches in the study of membrane transporter families, (II) the state of the art with experimental knowledge and current research on the NAT/NCS2 family, (III) the perspectives derived from the Cys-scanning analysis of XanQ.

Substrate selectivity of YgfU, a uric acid transporter from Escherichia coli.

The ubiquitous nucleobase-ascorbate transporter (NAT/NCS2) family includes more than 2,000 members, but only 15 have been characterized experimentally. Escherichia coli has 10 members, of which the uracil permease UraA and the xanthine permeases XanQ and XanP are functionally known. Of the remaining members, YgfU is closely related in sequence and genomic locus with XanQ. We analyzed YgfU and showed that it is a proton-gradient dependent, low-affinity (K(m) 0.5 mM), and high-capacity transporter for uric acid. It also shows a low capacity for transport of xanthine at 37 °C but not at 25 °C. Based on the set of positions delineated as important from our previous Cys-scanning analysis of permease XanQ, we subjected YgfU to rationally designed site-directed mutagenesis. The results show that the conserved His-37 (TM1), Glu-270 (TM8), Asp-298 (TM9), and Gln-318 and Asn-319 (TM10) are functionally irreplaceable, and Thr-100 (TM3) is essential for the uric acid selectivity because its replacement with Ala allows efficient uptake of xanthine. The key role of these residues is corroborated by the conservation pattern and homology modeling on the recently described x-ray structure of permease UraA. In addition, site-specific replacements at TM8 (S271A, M274D, V282S) impair expression in the membrane, and V320N (TM10) inactivates the permease, whereas R327G (TM10) or S426N (TM14) reduces the affinity for uric acid (4-fold increased K(m)). Our study shows that comprehensive analysis of structure-function relationships in a newly characterized transporter can be accomplished with relatively few site-directed replacements, based on the knowledge available from Cys-scanning mutagenesis of a prototypic homolog.

The role of transmembrane segment TM3 in the xanthine permease XanQ of Escherichia coli.

The xanthine permease XanQ of Escherichia coli is used as a study prototype for function-structure analysis of the ubiquitous nucleobase-ascorbate transporter (NAT/NCS2) family. Our previous mutagenesis study of polar residues of XanQ has shown that Asn-93 at the middle of putative TM3 is a determinant of substrate affinity and specificity. To study the role of TM3 in detail we employed Cys-scanning mutagenesis. Using a functional mutant devoid of Cys residues (C-less), each amino acid residue in sequence 79-107 (YGIVGSGLLSIQSVNFSFVTVMIALGSSM) including TM3 (underlined) and flanking sequences was replaced individually with Cys. Of 29 single-Cys mutants, 20 accumulate xanthine to 40-110% of the steady state observed with C-less, six (S88C, F94C, A102C, G104C, S106C) accumulate to low levels (10-30%) and three (G83C, G85C, N93C) are inactive. Extensive mutagenesis reveals that Gly-83 and, to a lesser extent, Gly-85, are crucial for expression in the membrane. Replacements of Asn-93 disrupt affinity (Thr) or permit recognition of 8-methylxanthine which is not a wild-type ligand (Ala, Ser, Asp) and utilization of uric acid which is not a wild-type substrate (Ala, Ser). Replacements of Phe-94 impair affinity for 2-thio and 6-thioxanthine (Tyr) or 3-methylxanthine (Ile). Single-Cys mutants S84C, L86C, L87C, and S95C are highly sensitive to inactivation by N-ethylmaleimide. Our data reveal that key residues of TM3 cluster in two conserved sequence motifs, (83)GSGLL(87) and (93)NFS(95), and highlight the importance of Asn-93 and Phe-94 in substrate recognition and specificity; these findings are supported by structural modeling on the recently described x-ray structure of the uracil-transporting homolog UraA.

Cysteine-scanning analysis of helices TM8, TM9a, and TM9b and intervening loops in the YgfO xanthine permease: a carboxyl group is essential at ASP-276.

Bacterial and fungal members of the ubiquitous nucleobase-ascorbate transporter (NAT/NCS2) family use the NAT signature motif, a conserved 11-amino acid sequence between amphipathic helices TM9a and TM9b, to define function and selectivity of the purine binding site. To examine the role of flanking helices TM9a, TM9b, and TM8, we employed Cys-scanning analysis of the xanthine-specific homolog YgfO from Escherichia coli. Using a functional mutant devoid of Cys residues (C-less), each amino acid residue in sequences (259)FLVVGTIYLLSVLEAVGDITATAMVSRRPIQGEEYQSRLKGGVLADGLVSVIASAV(314) and (342)TIAVMLVILGLFP(354) including these TMs (underlined) was replaced individually with Cys, except the irreplaceable Glu-272 and Asp-304, which had been studied previously. Of 67 single Cys mutants, 55 accumulate xanthine to 35-140% of the steady state observed with C-less, five (I265C, D276C, I277C, G299C, L350C) accumulate to low levels (10-20%) and seven (T278C, A279C, T280C, A281C, G305C, G351C, P354C) show negligible expression in the membrane. Extensive mutagenesis reveals that a carboxyl group is needed at Asp-276 for high activity and that D276E differs from wild type as it recognizes 8-methylxanthine (K(i) 79 µm) but fails to recognize 2-thioxanthine, 3-methylxanthine or 6-thioxanthine; bulky replacements of Ala-279 or Thr-280 and replacements of Gly-305, Gly-351, or Pro-354 impair activity or expression. Single Cys mutants V261C, A273C, G275C, and S284C are sensitive to inactivation by N-ethylmaleimide and sensitivity of G275C (IC(50) 15 µm) is enhanced in the presence of substrate. The data suggest that residues crucial for the transport mechanism cluster in two conserved motifs, at the cytoplasmic end of TM8 (EXXGDXXAT) and in TM9a (GXXXDG).

Purine substrate recognition by the nucleobase-ascorbate transporter signature motif in the YgfO xanthine permease: ASN-325 binds and ALA-323 senses substrate.

The nucleobase-ascorbate transporter (NAT) signature motif is a conserved 11-amino acid sequence of the ubiquitous NAT/NCS2 family, essential for function and selectivity of both a bacterial (YgfO) and a fungal (UapA) purine-transporting homolog. We examined the role of NAT motif in more detail, using Cys-scanning and site-directed alkylation analysis of the YgfO xanthine permease of Escherichia coli. Analysis of single-Cys mutants in the sequence 315-339 for sensitivity to inactivation by 2-sulfonatoethyl methanethiosulfonate (MTSES(-)) and N-ethylmaleimide (NEM) showed a similar pattern: highly sensitive mutants clustering at the motif sequence (323-329) and a short alpha-helical face downstream (332, 333, 336). In the presence of substrate, N325C is protected from alkylation with either MTSES(-) or NEM, whereas sensitivity of A323C to inactivation by NEM is enhanced, shifting IC(50) from 34 to 14 microM. Alkylation or sensitivity of the other mutants is unaffected by substrate; the lack of an effect on Q324C is attributed to gross inability of this mutant for high affinity binding. Site-directed mutants G333R and S336N at the alpha-helical face downstream the motif display specific changes in ligand recognition relative to wild type; G333R allows binding of 7-methyl and 8-methylxanthine, whereas S336N disrupts affinity for 6-thioxanthine. Finally, all assayable motif-mutants are highly accessible to MTSES(-) from the periplasmic side. The data suggest that the NAT motif region lines the solvent- and substrate-accessible inner cavity, Asn-325 is at the binding site, Ala-323 responds to binding with a specific conformational shift, and Gly-333 and Ser-336 form part of the purine permeation pathway.

Gene expression profile associated with oncogenic ras-induced senescence, cell death, and transforming properties in human cells.

We developed inducible and constitutive expression systems of Ha-RasV12 in HEK 293 cells to examine early oncogenic RasV12 signaling. Inducible expression of oncogenic Ras-triggered growth arrest, early senescence, and later apoptosis. Gene expression profile analysis revealed early Ras proliferation and cell cycle genes like c-fos, cyclin E, cdk2, cell-cell contact, and signaling like integrin a6, MEK5, and free radical signaling genes, like proline oxidase. Therefore, Ras-mediated signaling is a fine regulated process both positively and negatively influencing cell cycle, senescence, and apoptosis pathways. Novel early RAS-target genes could be potentially exploited in cancer diagnostics and therapeutics.

Role of intramembrane polar residues in the YgfO xanthine permease: HIS-31 and ASN-93 are crucial for affinity and specificity, and ASP-304 and GLU-272 are irreplaceable.

Using the YgfO xanthine permease of Escherichia coli as a bacterial model for the study of the evolutionarily ubiquitous nucleobase-ascorbate transporter (NAT/NCS2) family, we performed a systematic Cys-scanning and site-directed mutagenesis of 14 putatively charged (Asp, Glu, His, Lys, or Arg) and 7 highly polar (Gln or Asn) residues that are predicted to lie in transmembrane helices (TMs). Of 21 single-Cys mutants engineered in the background of a functional YgfO devoid of Cys residues (C-less), only four are inactive or have marginal activity (H31C, N93C, E272C, D304C). The 4 residues are conserved throughout the family in TM1 (His-31), TM3 (Asn-93/Ser/Thr), TM8 (Glu-272), and putative TM9a (Asp-304/Asn/Glu). Extensive site-directed mutagenesis in wild-type background showed that H31N and H31Q have high activity and affinity for xanthine but H31Q recognizes novel purine bases and analogues, whereas H31C and H31L have impaired affinity for xanthine and analogues, and H31K or H31R impairs expression in the membrane. N93S and N93A are highly active but more promiscuous for recognition of analogues at the imidazole moiety of substrate, N93D has low activity, N93T has low affinity for xanthine or analogues, and N93Q or N93C is inactive. All mutants replacing Glu-272 or Asp-304, including E272D, E272Q, D304E, and D304N, are inactive, although expressed to high levels in the membrane. Finally, one of the 17 assayable single-Cys mutants, Q258C, was sensitive to inactivation by N-ethylmaleimide. The findings suggest that polar residues important for the function of YgfO cluster in TMs 1, 3, 8 and 9a.

Purification and partial characterization of the xanthine-uric acid transporter (UapA) of Aspergillus nidulans.

UapA, the uric acid-xanthine permease from the filamentous ascomycete Aspergillus nidulans, is one of the most thoroughly characterized purine/H(+) transporters in eukaryotes. Detailed studies have addressed its regulation of expression, at both the transcriptional and post-translational levels, in response to physiological and developmental signals. An extensive kinetic profile towards a plethora of purines and mutational analyses have established models on how UapA recognizes the purine ring and revealed specific amino acid residues involved in proper folding, topogenesis, function and specificity. The present work describes for the first time the purification of the UapA transporter of A. nidulans through overexpression via the strong, ethanol-inducible, glucose-repressible, alcA promoter. Purification, almost to homogeneity, was achieved by Ni(2+) affinity chromatography using a functional His-tagged UapA protein version. It is subsequently shown, by Circular Dichroism (CD) spectroscopy, that the purified protein is structured with a high alpha-helical content, as expected from the in silico predictions. The result of this work opens the way for further, analytical and biochemical studies on UapA at the protein level.

HLA-DR expressing peripheral T regulatory cells in newly diagnosed patients with different forms of autoimmune thyroid disease.

BACKGROUND: Several reports have claimed a role for T regulatory cells (Tregs) in the pathogenesis of various autoimmune diseases, including autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD). The aim of the present study was to examine whether changes in the number of peripheral CD4 + CD25highHLA-DR + lymphocytes, a subpopulation of Tregs, occur in patients with AITD. METHODS: Three-color flow cytometry was used to detect the proportion of CD4 cells expressing CD25, CD25high, and HLA-DR in 70 newly diagnosed and untreated AITD patients and 20 controls. The intensity of CD25 expression on these cells was also examined. RESULTS: The proportion of CD4 + CD25 + cells as well as the proportion of CD4 + CD25high cells among the population of CD4 lymphocytes was not different in AITD patients relative to controls. However, a significant increase in the proportion of CD4 + CD25highHLA-DR + cells among the population of CD4 lymphocytes was found in patients with Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT) compared to controls. CONCLUSIONS: In HT patients there is a quantitative increase of CD4 + CD25highHLA-DR + cells that may indicate a compensatory expansion of this subpopulation of Tregs in an attempt to suppress the immune response.

Differential expression of Fas system apoptotic molecules in peripheral lymphocytes from patients with Graves' disease and Hashimoto's thyroiditis.

OBJECTIVE: To examine whether the Fas system apoptotic molecules are differentially expressed in Graves' disease (GD) and Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT), the two opposite phenotypes of autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD). DESIGN: The expression of Fas and Fas ligand (FasL) on peripheral CD4 and CD8 lymphocytes, and non-lymphoid immune cells as well as their soluble forms in serum from untreated patients with GD and HT were evaluated. METHODS: Flow cytometry was performed for the study of peripheral immune cells from 70 newly diagnosed patients with AITD (55 with HT and 15 with GD) and 20 controls. ELISA was used for the measurement of soluble Fas (sFas) in serum samples from a subgroup of 35 AITD patients. RESULTS: An increase in the proportion of CD4 and CD8 cells expressing Fas was found in both GD and HT, albeit with some differences, when compared with controls. Importantly, in GD patients, the intensity of Fas expression on CD4 and CD8 lymphocytes was reduced and sFas levels in serum were simultaneously increased when compared with HT patients and controls. CONCLUSIONS: The Fas system apoptotic molecules appear to be differentially expressed on peripheral lymphocytes in the two opposite phenotypes of AITD.