A comprehensive evaluation of Hippo pathway silencing in sarcomas.

TAZ and YAP are transcriptional coactivators negatively regulated by the Hippo pathway that have emerged as key oncoproteins in several cancers including sarcomas. We hypothesized that loss of expression of the Hippo kinases might be a mechanism of activating TAZ and YAP. By immunohistochemistry, TAZ/YAP activated clinical sarcoma samples demonstrated loss of MST1 (47%), MST2 (26%), LATS1 (19%), and LATS2 (27%). Western blot similarly demonstrated loss of MST1 (58%), MST2 (25%), and LATS2 (17%). Treatment with MG132 demonstrated an accumulation of MST2 in 25% of sarcoma cell lines, indicating that proteosomal degradation regulates MST2 expression. qRT-PCR in sarcoma cell lines demonstrated loss of expression of the Hippo kinases at the RNA level, most pronounced in MST1 (42%) and MST2 (25%). 5-azacytidine treatment in sarcoma cell lines modestly reversed expression of predominantly MST1 (8%) and MST2 (17%), indicating CpG island hypermethylation can silence expression of MST1 and MST2. Trichostatin A treatment reversed expression of MST1 (58%) and MST2 (67%), indicating histone deacetylation also plays a role in silencing expression of MST1 and MST2. Loss of expression of the Hippo kinases is frequent in sarcomas and is due to a variety of mechanisms including regulation at the post-translational level and epigenetic silencing.

TAZ and YAP are frequently activated oncoproteins in sarcomas.

TAZ (WWTR1) and YAP are transcriptional coactivators and oncoproteins inhibited by the Hippo pathway. Herein we evaluate 159 sarcomas representing the most prevalent sarcoma types by immunohistochemistry for expression and activation (nuclear localization) of TAZ and YAP. We show that 50% of sarcomas demonstrate activation of YAP while 66% of sarcomas demonstrate activated TAZ. Differential activation of TAZ and YAP are identified in various sarcoma types. At an RNA level, expression of WWTR1 or YAP1 predicts overall survival in undifferentiated pleomorphic sarcoma and dedifferentiated liposarcoma. Immunohistochemistry demonstrates that TAZ and YAP expression and activation are positively correlated with grade in the well-differentiated liposarcoma to dedifferentiated liposarcoma tumor progression sequence as well as conventional chondrosarcomas. TAZ and YAP are constitutively activated oncoproteins in sarcoma cell lines. Knock-down of TAZ and YAP demonstrate differential activity for the two proteins. Verteporfin decreases colony formation in soft agar as well as CTGF expression in sarcoma cell lines harboring activated TAZ and YAP.

Glycosylation contributes to variability in expression of murine cytomegalovirus m157 and enhances stability of interaction with the NK-cell receptor Ly49H.

NK cell-mediated resistance to murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) is controlled by allelic Ly49 receptors, including activating Ly49H (C57BL/6 strain) and inhibitory Ly49I (129 strain), which specifically recognize MCMV m157, a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-linked protein with homology to MHC class I. Although the Ly49 receptors retain significant homology to classic carbohydrate-binding lectins, the role of glycosylation in ligand binding is unclear. Herein, we show that m157 is expressed in multiple, differentially N-glycosylated isoforms in m157-transduced or MCMV-infected cells. We used site-directed mutagenesis to express single and combinatorial asparagine (N)-to-glutamine (Q) mutations at N178, N187, N213, and N267 in myeloid and fibroblast cell lines. Progressive loss of N-linked glycans led to a significant reduction of total cellular m157 abundance, although all variably glycosylated m157 isoforms were expressed at the cell surface and retained the capacity to activate Ly49H(B6) and Ly49I(129) reporter cells and Ly49H(+) NK cells. However, the complete lack of N-linked glycans on m157 destabilized the m157-Ly49H interaction and prevented physical transfer of m157 to Ly49H-expressing cells. Thus, glycosylation on m157 enhances expression and binding to Ly49H, factors that may impact the interaction between NK cells and MCMV in vivo where receptor-ligand interactions are more limiting.

Squamous cell carcinoma cells differentially stimulate NK cell effector functions: the role of IL-18.

Tumor cells stimulate natural killer (NK) cell effector functions, but the regulation of cytokine secretion and cytolysis is incompletely understood. We tested whether oral and pharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma cell lines differentially stimulated NK cell interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) secretion and cytolysis using a clone of the NK-92-transformed human NK cell line, NK92.35. SCC-4 and SCC-25 cells, but not FaDu or Cal 27 cells, stimulated robust NK92.35 IFN-gamma secretion. All four carcinoma cell lines were lysed by NK92.35 cells. These findings indicate that carcinoma cells differentially stimulate NK cell IFN-gamma secretion and cytolysis. In Transwell experiments, a combination of SCC-4 or SCC-25 cell soluble factors and contact with FaDu cells synergistically stimulated NK92.35 cell IFN-gamma secretion. Stimulatory SCC-4 cells constitutively secreted IL-18, a cytokine that potently augments IFN-gamma secretion by T cells and NK cells. In contrast, poorly stimulatory FaDu cells produced little or no IL-18, but synergized with recombinant IL-18 to stimulate NK92.35 IFN-gamma secretion. mAb to IL-18 or IL-18 receptor diminished SCC-4-stimulated IFN-gamma secretion by NK92.35 cells and by nontransformed NK cells. Thus, IL-18 was necessary for optimal carcinoma stimulation of NK cell IFN-gamma secretion. In vivo, oral and upper aerodigestive tract epithelia and carcinomas produced IL-18, but one squamous cell carcinoma had heterogeneous IL-18 expression. Thus IL-18 production can account for squamous cell carcinoma differential stimulation of NK cell effector functions in vitro and may be important for stimulation of NK cells in vivo.