Cardiac human bitter taste receptors contain naturally occurring variants that alter function.

Bitter taste receptors (T2R) are a subfamily of G protein-coupled receptors that enable humans to detect aversive and toxic substances. The ability to discern bitter compounds varies between individuals and is attributed mainly to naturally occurring T2R polymorphisms. T2Rs are also expressed in numerous non-gustatory tissues, including the heart, indicating potential contributions to cardiovascular physiology. In this study. T2Rs that have previously been identified in human cardiac tissues (T2Rs - 10, 14, 30, 31, 46 and 50) and their naturally occurring polymorphisms were functionally characterised. The ligand-dependent signaling responses of some T2R variants were completely abolished (T2R30 Leu252 and T2R46 Met228), whereas other receptor variants had moderate changes in their maximal response, but not potency, relative to wild type. Using a cAMP fluorescent biosensor, we reveal the productive coupling of T2R14, but not the T2R14 Phe201 variant, to endogenous Gαi. Modeling revealed that these variants resulted in altered interactions that generally affected ligand binding (T2R30 Leu252) or Gα protein interactions (T2R46 Met228 and T2R14 Phe201), rather than receptor structural stability. Interestingly, this study is the first to show a difference in signaling for T2R50 Tyr203 (rs1376251) which has been associated with cardiovascular disease. The observation of naturally occurring functional variation in the T2Rs with the greatest expression in the heart is important, as their discovery should prove useful in deciphering the role of T2Rs within the cardiovascular system.

Sites and mechanisms of action of colokinetics at dopamine, ghrelin and serotonin receptors in the rodent lumbosacral defecation centre.

Agonists of dopamine D2 receptors (D2R), 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT, serotonin) receptors (5-HTR) and ghrelin receptors (GHSR) activate neurons in the lumbosacral defecation centre, and act as 'colokinetics', leading to increased propulsive colonic motility, in vivo. In the present study, we investigated which neurons in the lumbosacral defecation centre express the receptors and whether dopamine, serotonin and ghrelin receptor agonists act on the same lumbosacral preganglionic neurons (PGNs). We used whole cell electrophysiology to record responses from neurons in the lumbosacral defecation centre, following colokinetic application, and investigated their expression profiles and the chemistries of their neural inputs. Fluorescence in situ hybridisation revealed Drd2, Ghsr and Htr2C transcripts were colocalised in lumbosacral PGNs of mice, and immunohistochemistry showed that these neurons have closely associated tyrosine hydroxylase and 5-HT boutons. Previous studies showed that they do not receive ghrelin inputs. Whole cell electrophysiology in adult mice spinal cord revealed that dopamine, serotonin, α-methylserotonin and capromorelin each caused inward, excitatory currents in overlapping populations of lumbosacral PGNs. Furthermore, dopamine caused increased frequency of both IPSCs and EPSCs in a cohort of D2R neurons. Tetrodotoxin blocked the IPSCs and EPSCs, revealing a post-synaptic excitatory action of dopamine. In lumbosacral PGNs of postnatal day 7-14 rats, only dopamine's postsynaptic effects were observed. Furthermore, inward, excitatory currents evoked by dopamine were reduced by the GHSR antagonist, YIL781. We conclude that lumbosacral PGNs are the site where the action of endogenous ligands of D2R and 5-HT2R converge, and that GHSR act as a cis-modulator of D2R expressed by the same neurons. KEY POINTS: Dopamine, 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT, serotonin) and ghrelin (GHSR) receptor agonists increase colorectal motility and have been postulated to act at receptors on parasympathetic preganglionic neurons (PGNs) in the lumbosacral spinal cord. We aimed to determine which neurons in the lumbosacral spinal cord express dopamine, serotonin and GHSR receptors, their neural inputs, and whether agonists at these receptors excite them. We show that dopamine, serotonin and ghrelin receptor transcripts are contained in the same PGNs and that these neurons have closely associated tyrosine hydroxylase and serotonin boutons. Whole cell electrophysiology revealed that dopamine, serotonin and GHSR receptor agonists induce an inward excitatory current in overlapping populations of lumbosacral PGNs. Dopamine-induced excitation was reversed by GHSR antagonism. The present study demonstrates that lumbosacral PGNs are the site at which actions of endogenous ligands of dopamine D2 receptors and 5-HT type 2 receptors converge. Ghrelin receptors are functional, but their role appears to be as modulators of dopamine effects at D2 receptors.

Targeting appetite and satiety in diabetes and obesity, via G protein-coupled receptors.

Type 2 diabetes and obesity have reached pandemic proportions throughout the world, so much so that the World Health Organisation coined the term "Globesity" to help encapsulate the magnitude of the problem. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are highly tractable drug targets due to their wide involvement in all aspects of physiology and pathophysiology, indeed, GPCRs are the targets of approximately 30% of the currently approved drugs. GPCRs are also broadly involved in key physiologies that underlie type 2 diabetes and obesity including feeding reward, appetite and satiety, regulation of blood glucose levels, energy homeostasis and adipose function. Despite this, only two GPCRs are the target of approved pharmaceuticals for treatment of type 2 diabetes and obesity. In this review we discuss the role of these, and select other candidate GPCRs, involved in various facets of type 2 diabetic or obese pathophysiology, how they might be targeted and the potential reasons why pharmaceuticals against these targets have not progressed to clinical use. Finally, we provide a perspective on the current development pipeline of anti-obesity drugs that target GPCRs.

Discovery of a Positive Allosteric Modulator of Cholecystokinin Action at CCK1R in Normal and Elevated Cholesterol.

Drugs useful in prevention/treatment of obesity could improve health. Cholecystokinin (CCK) is a key regulator of appetite, working through the type 1 CCK receptor (CCK1R); however, full agonists have not stimulated more weight loss than dieting. We proposed an alternate strategy to target this receptor, while reducing likelihood of side effects and/or toxicity. Positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) with minimal intrinsic agonist activity would enhance CCK action, while maintaining spatial and temporal characteristics of physiologic signaling. This could correct abnormal stimulus-activity coupling observed in a high-cholesterol environment observed in obesity. We utilized high-throughput screening to identify a molecule with this pharmacological profile and studied its basis of action. Compound 1 was a weak partial agonist, with PAM activity to enhance CCK action at CCK1R, but not CCK2R, maintained in both normal and high cholesterol. Compound 1 (10 µM) did not exhibit agonist activity or stimulate internalization of CCK1R. It enhanced CCK activity by slowing the off-rate of bound hormone, increasing its binding affinity. Computational docking of Compound 1 to CCK1R yielded plausible poses. A radioiodinatable photolabile analogue retained Compound 1 pharmacology and covalently labeled CCK1R Thr211, consistent with one proposed pose. Our study identifies a novel, selective, CCK1R PAM that binds to the receptor to enhance action of CCK-8 and CCK-58 in both normal and disease-mimicking high-cholesterol environments. This facilitates the development of compounds that target the physiologic spatial and temporal engagement of CCK1R by CCK that underpins its critical role in metabolic regulation.

Structures of the human cholecystokinin 1 (CCK1) receptor bound to Gs and Gq mimetic proteins provide insight into mechanisms of G protein selectivity.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are critical regulators of cellular function acting via heterotrimeric G proteins as their primary transducers with individual GPCRs capable of pleiotropic coupling to multiple G proteins. Structural features governing G protein selectivity and promiscuity are currently unclear. Here, we used cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) to determine structures of the cholecystokinin (CCK) type 1 receptor (CCK1R) bound to the CCK peptide agonist, CCK-8 and 2 distinct transducer proteins, its primary transducer Gq, and the more weakly coupled Gs. As seen with other Gq/11-GPCR complexes, the Gq-α5 helix (αH5) bound to a relatively narrow pocket in the CCK1R core. Surprisingly, the backbone of the CCK1R and volume of the G protein binding pocket were essentially equivalent when Gs was bound, with the Gs αH5 displaying a conformation that arises from "unwinding" of the far carboxyl-terminal residues, compared to canonically Gs coupled receptors. Thus, integrated changes in the conformations of both the receptor and G protein are likely to play critical roles in the promiscuous coupling of individual GPCRs.

AM833 Is a Novel Agonist of Calcitonin Family G Protein-Coupled Receptors: Pharmacological Comparison with Six Selective and Nonselective Agonists.

Obesity and associated comorbidities are a major health burden, and novel therapeutics to help treat obesity are urgently needed. There is increasing evidence that targeting the amylin receptors (AMYRs), heterodimers of the calcitonin G protein-coupled receptor (CTR) and receptor activity-modifying proteins, improves weight control and has the potential to act additively with other treatments such as glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists. Recent data indicate that AMYR agonists, which can also independently activate the CTR, may have improved efficacy for treating obesity, even though selective activation of CTRs is not efficacious. AM833 (cagrilintide) is a novel lipidated amylin analog that is undergoing clinical trials as a nonselective AMYR and CTR agonist. In the current study, we have investigated the pharmacology of AM833 across 25 endpoints and compared this peptide with AMYR selective and nonselective lipidated analogs (AM1213 and AM1784), and the clinically used peptide agonists pramlintide (AMYR selective) and salmon CT (nonselective). We also profiled human CT and rat amylin as prototypical selective agonists of CTR and AMYRs, respectively. Our results demonstrate that AM833 has a unique pharmacological profile across diverse measures of receptor binding, activation, and regulation. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: AM833 is a novel nonselective agonist of calcitonin family receptors that has demonstrated efficacy for the treatment of obesity in phase 2 clinical trials. This study demonstrates that AM833 has a unique pharmacological profile across diverse measures of receptor binding, activation, and regulation when compared with other selective and nonselective calcitonin receptor and amylin receptor agonists. The present data provide mechanistic insight into the actions of AM833.

Dopamine and ghrelin receptor co-expression and interaction in the spinal defecation centers.

BACKGROUND: Dopamine receptor 2 (DRD2) and ghrelin receptor (GHSR1a) agonists both stimulate defecation by actions at the lumbosacral defecation center. Dopamine is in nerve terminals surrounding autonomic neurons of the defecation center, whereas ghrelin is not present in the spinal cord. Dopamine at D2 receptors generally inhibits neurons, but at the defecation center, its effect is excitatory. METHODS: In vivo recording of defecation and colorectal propulsion was used to investigate interaction between DRD2 and GHSR1a. Localization studies were used to determine sites of receptor expression in rat and human spinal cord. KEY RESULTS: Dopamine, and the DRD2 agonist, quinpirole, directly applied to the lumbosacral cord, caused defecation. The effect of intrathecal dopamine was inhibited by the GHSR1a antagonist, YIL781, given systemically, but YIL781 was not an antagonist at DRD2. The DRD2 agonist, pramipexole, administered systemically caused colorectal propulsion that was prevented when the pelvic nerves were cut. Drd2 and Ghsr were expressed together in autonomic preganglionic neurons at the level of the defecation centers in rat and human. Behaviorally induced defecation (caused by water avoidance stress) was reduced by the DRD2 antagonist, sulpiride. We had previously shown it is reduced by YIL781. CONCLUSIONS AND INFERENCES: Our observations imply that dopamine is a transmitter of the defecation pathways whose actions are exerted through interacting dopamine (D2) and ghrelin receptors on lumbosacral autonomic neurons that project to the colorectum. The results explain the excitation by dopamine agonists and the conservation of GHSR1a in the absence of ghrelin.

Differential GLP-1R Binding and Activation by Peptide and Non-peptide Agonists.

Peptide drugs targeting class B1 G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) can treat multiple diseases; however, there remains substantial interest in the development of orally delivered non-peptide drugs. Here, we reveal unexpected overlap between signaling and regulation of the glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor by the non-peptide agonist PF 06882961 and GLP-1 that was not observed for another compound, CHU-128. Compounds from these patent series, including PF 06882961, are currently in clinical trials for treatment of type 2 diabetes. High-resolution cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures reveal that the binding sites for PF 06882961 and GLP-1 substantially overlap, whereas CHU-128 adopts a unique binding mode with a more open receptor conformation at the extracellular face. Structural differences involving extensive water-mediated hydrogen bond networks could be correlated to functional data to understand how PF 06882961, but not CHU-128, can closely mimic the pharmacological properties of GLP-1. These findings will facilitate rational structure-based discovery of non-peptide agonists targeting class B GPCRs.

Design, synthesis and characterization of a fluorescently labeled functional analog of full-length human ghrelin.

Human ghrelin receptor (GHSR) is a recognized prospective target in the diagnosis and therapy of multiple cancer types. To gain a better understanding of this receptor signaling system, we have synthesized a novel full-length ghrelin analog that is fluorescently labeled at the side-chain of a C-terminal cysteine extension. This analog exhibited nanomolar affinity and potency for the ghrelin receptor. It shows comparable efficacy with that of endogenous ghrelin. The fluorescently-labeled ghrelin analog is a valuable tool for in vitro imaging of cell lines that express ghrelin receptor.

Structure and dynamics of the active Gs-coupled human secretin receptor.

The class B secretin GPCR (SecR) has broad physiological effects, with target potential for treatment of metabolic and cardiovascular disease. Molecular understanding of SecR binding and activation is important for its therapeutic exploitation. We combined cryo-electron microscopy, molecular dynamics, and biochemical cross-linking to determine a 2.3 Å structure, and interrogate dynamics, of secretin bound to the SecR:Gs complex. SecR exhibited a unique organization of its extracellular domain (ECD) relative to its 7-transmembrane (TM) core, forming more extended interactions than other family members. Numerous polar interactions formed between secretin and the receptor extracellular loops (ECLs) and TM helices. Cysteine-cross-linking, cryo-electron microscopy multivariate analysis and molecular dynamics simulations revealed that interactions between peptide and receptor were dynamic, and suggested a model for initial peptide engagement where early interactions between the far N-terminus of the peptide and SecR ECL2 likely occur following initial binding of the peptide C-terminus to the ECD.

Structure and Dynamics of Adrenomedullin Receptors AM1 and AM2 Reveal Key Mechanisms in the Control of Receptor Phenotype by Receptor Activity-Modifying Proteins.

Adrenomedullin (AM) and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) receptors are critically important for metabolism, vascular tone, and inflammatory response. AM receptors are also required for normal lymphatic and blood vascular development and angiogenesis. They play a pivotal role in embryo implantation and fertility and can provide protection against hypoxic and oxidative stress. CGRP and AM receptors are heterodimers of the calcitonin receptor-like receptor (CLR) and receptor activity-modifying protein 1 (RAMP1) (CGRPR), as well as RAMP2 or RAMP3 (AM1R and AM2R, respectively). However, the mechanistic basis for RAMP modulation of CLR phenotype is unclear. In this study, we report the cryo-EM structure of the AM1R in complex with AM and Gs at a global resolution of 3.0 Å, and structures of the AM2R in complex with either AM or intermedin/adrenomedullin 2 (AM2) and Gs at 2.4 and 2.3 Å, respectively. The structures reveal distinctions in the primary orientation of the extracellular domains (ECDs) relative to the receptor core and distinct positioning of extracellular loop 3 (ECL3) that are receptor-dependent. Analysis of dynamic data present in the cryo-EM micrographs revealed additional distinctions in the extent of mobility of the ECDs. Chimeric exchange of the linker region of the RAMPs connecting the TM helix and the ECD supports a role for this segment in controlling receptor phenotype. Moreover, a subset of the motions of the ECD appeared coordinated with motions of the G protein relative to the receptor core, suggesting that receptor ECD dynamics could influence G protein interactions. This work provides fundamental advances in our understanding of GPCR function and how this can be allosterically modulated by accessory proteins.

Activation of the GLP-1 receptor by a non-peptidic agonist.

Class B G-protein-coupled receptors are major targets for the treatment of chronic diseases, including diabetes and obesity1. Structures of active receptors reveal peptide agonists engage deep within the receptor core, leading to an outward movement of extracellular loop 3 and the tops of transmembrane helices 6 and 7, an inward movement of transmembrane helix 1, reorganization of extracellular loop 2 and outward movement of the intracellular side of transmembrane helix 6, resulting in G-protein interaction and activation2-6. Here we solved the structure of a non-peptide agonist, TT-OAD2, bound to the glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor. Our structure identified an unpredicted non-peptide agonist-binding pocket in which reorganization of extracellular loop 3 and transmembrane helices 6 and 7 manifests independently of direct ligand interaction within the deep transmembrane domain pocket. TT-OAD2 exhibits biased agonism, and kinetics of G-protein activation and signalling that are distinct from peptide agonists. Within the structure, TT-OAD2 protrudes beyond the receptor core to interact with the lipid or detergent, providing an explanation for the distinct activation kinetics that may contribute to the clinical efficacy of this compound series. This work alters our understanding of the events that drive the activation of class B receptors.

Building the case for the calcitonin receptor as a viable target for the treatment of glioblastoma.

Researchers are actively seeking novel targeted therapies for the brain tumour glioblastoma (GBM) as the mean survival is less than 15 months. Here we discuss the proposal that the calcitonin receptor (CT Receptor), expressed in 76-86% of patient biopsies, is expressed by both malignant glioma cells and putative glioma stem cells (GSCs), and therefore represents a potential therapeutic target. Forty-two per cent (42%) of high-grade glioma (HGG; representative of GSCs) cell lines express CT Receptor protein. CT Receptors are widely expressed throughout the life cycle of organisms and in some instances promote apoptosis. Which of the common isoforms of the CT Receptor are predominantly expressed is currently unknown, but a functional response to cell stress of the insert-positive isoform is hypothesised. A model for resistant malignancies is one in which chemotherapy plays a direct role in activating quiescent stem cells for replacement of the tumour tissue hierarchy. The putative role that the CT Receptor plays in maintenance of quiescent cancer stem cells is discussed in view of the activation of the Notch-CT Receptor-collagen V axis in quiescent muscle (satellite) stem cells. The pharmacological CT response profiles of four of the HGG cell lines were reported. Both CT responders and non-responders were sensitive to an immunotoxin based on an anti-CT Receptor antibody. The CALCR mRNA exhibits alternative splicing commonly associated with cancer cells, which could result in the atypical pharmacology exhibited by CT non-responders and an explanation of tumour suppression. Due to the inherent instability of CALCR mRNA, analysis of CT Receptor protein in patient samples will lead to improved data for the expression of CT Receptor in GBM and other cancers, and an understanding of the role and activity of the splice variants. This knowledge will aid the effective targeting of this receptor for treatment of GBM.

The nature of efficacy at G protein-coupled receptors.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) participate in many pathophysiological processes as well as almost all aspects of normal physiology. They are present at the surface of all cell types making them amenable and attractive targets for pharmaceutical therapeutics. GPCRs possess complex pharmacology with the ability to be turned on to various extents, have their constitutive activity suppressed and even switch between signaling pathways to which they couple. Underlying this complex pharmacology is GPCR signaling efficacy, and differences in efficacy promoted by alternative ligands and in different tissues is of great interest to biology in general and also the pharmaceutical industry. In this review we hope to discuss what the molecular foundations of efficacy are and whether a new approach utilizing a rate-dependent model may provide new insights into this phenomenon.

TrkB Agonist LM22A-4 Increases Oligodendroglial Populations During Myelin Repair in the Corpus Callosum.

The neurotrophin, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) promotes central nervous system (CNS) myelination during development and after injury. This is achieved via activation of oligodendrocyte-expressed tropomyosin-related kinase (Trk) B receptors. However, while administration of BDNF has shown beneficial effects, BDNF itself has a poor pharmacokinetic profile. Here, we compare two TrkB-targeted BDNF-mimetics, the structural-mimetic, tricyclic dimeric peptide-6 (TDP6) and the non-peptide small molecule TrkB agonist LM22A-4 in a cuprizone model of central demyelination in female mice. Both mimetics promoted remyelination, increasing myelin sheath thickness and oligodendrocyte densities after 1-week recovery. Importantly, LM22A-4 exerts these effects in an oligodendroglial TrkB-dependent manner. However, analysis of TrkB signaling by LM22A-4 suggests rather than direct activation of TrkB, LM22A-4 exerts its effects via indirect transactivation of Trk receptors. Overall, these studies support the therapeutic strategy to selectively targeting TrkB activation to promote remyelination in the brain.

Expression and activity of the calcitonin receptor family in a sample of primary human high-grade gliomas.

BACKGROUND: Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and aggressive type of primary brain cancer. With median survival of less than 15 months, identification and validation of new GBM therapeutic targets is of critical importance. RESULTS: In this study we tested expression and performed pharmacological characterization of the calcitonin receptor (CTR) as well as other members of the calcitonin family of receptors in high-grade glioma (HGG) cell lines derived from individual patient tumours, cultured in defined conditions. Previous immunohistochemical data demonstrated CTR expression in GBM biopsies and we were able to confirm CALCR (gene encoding CTR) expression. However, as assessed by cAMP accumulation assay, only one of the studied cell lines expressed functional CTR, while the other cell lines have functional CGRP (CLR/RAMP1) receptors. The only CTR-expressing cell line (SB2b) showed modest coupling to the cAMP pathway and no activation of other known CTR signaling pathways, including ERK1/2 and p38 MAP kinases, and Ca2+ mobilization, supportive of low cell surface receptor expression. Exome sequencing data failed to account for the discrepancy between functional data and expression on the cell lines that do not respond to calcitonin(s) with no deleterious non-synonymous polymorphisms detected, suggesting that other factors may be at play, such as alternative splicing or rapid constitutive receptor internalisation. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that GPCR signaling can display significant variation depending on cellular system used, and effects seen in model recombinant cell lines or tumour cell lines are not always reproduced in a more physiologically relevant system and vice versa.

The Molecular Control of Calcitonin Receptor Signaling.

The calcitonin receptor (CTR) is a class B G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that responds to the peptide hormone calcitonin (CT). CTs are clinically approved for the treatment of bone diseases. We previously reported a 4.1 Å structure of the activated CTR bound to salmon CT (sCT) and heterotrimeric Gs protein by cryo-electron microscopy (Liang, Y.-L., et al. Phase-plate cryo- EM structure of a class B GPCR-G protein complex. Nature 2017, 546, 118-123). In the current study, we have reprocessed the electron micrographs to yield a 3.3 Å map of the complex. This has allowed us to model extracellular loops (ECLs) 2 and 3, and the peptide N-terminus that previously could not be resolved. We have also performed alanine scanning mutagenesis of ECL1 and the upper segment of transmembrane helix 1 (TM1) and its extension into the receptor extracellular domain (TM1 stalk), with effects on peptide binding and function assessed by cAMP accumulation and ERK1/2 phosphorylation. These data were combined with previously published alanine scanning mutagenesis of ECL2 and ECL3 and the new structural information to provide a comprehensive 3D map of the molecular surface of the CTR that controls binding and signaling of distinct CT and related peptides. The work highlights distinctions in how different, related, class B receptors may be activated. The new mutational data on the TM1 stalk and ECL1 have also provided critical insights into the divergent control of cAMP versus pERK signaling and, collectively with previous mutagenesis data, offer evidence that the conformations linked to these different signaling pathways are, in many ways, mutually exclusive. This study furthers our understanding of the complex nature of signaling elicited by GPCRs and, in particular, that of the therapeutically important class B subfamily.

Deconvoluting the Molecular Control of Binding and Signaling at the Amylin 3 Receptor: RAMP3 Alters Signal Propagation through Extracellular Loops of the Calcitonin Receptor.

Amylin is coexpressed with insulin in pancreatic islet ß-cells and has potent effects on gastric emptying and food intake. The effect of amylin on satiation has been postulated to involve AMY3 receptors (AMY3R) that are heteromers of the calcitonin receptor (CTR) and receptor activity-modifying protein 3 (RAMP3). Understanding the molecular control of signaling through the AMY3R is thus important for peptide drug targeting of this receptor. We have previously used alanine scanning mutagenesis to study the contribution of the extracellular surface of the CTR to binding and signaling initiated by calcitonin (CT) and related peptides (Dal Maso, E., et al. (2019) The molecular control of calcitonin receptor signaling. ACS Pharmacol. Transl. Sci. 2, 31-51). That work revealed ligand- and pathway-specific effects of mutation, with extracellular loops (ECLs) 2 and 3 particularly important in the distinct propagation of signaling mediated by individual peptides. In the current study, we have used equivalent alanine scanning of ECL2 and ECL3 of the CTR in the context of coexpression with RAMP3 to form AMY3Rs, to examine functional affinity and efficacy of peptides in cAMP accumulation and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) phosphorylation (pERK). The effect of mutation was determined on representatives of the three major distinct classes of CT peptide, salmon CT (sCT), human CT (hCT), and porcine CT (pCT), as well as rat amylin (rAmy) or human α-CGRP (calcitonin gene-related peptide, hCGRP) whose potency is enhanced by RAMP interaction. We demonstrate that the dynamic nature of CTR ECL2 and ECL3 in propagation of signaling is fundamentally altered when complexed with RAMP3 to form the AMY3R, despite only having predicted direct interactions with ECL2. Moreover, the work shows that the role of these loops in receptor signaling is highly peptide dependent, illustrating that even subtle changes to peptide sequence may change signaling output downstream of the receptor.

Structure of the adenosine-bound human adenosine A1 receptor-Gi complex.

The class A adenosine A1 receptor (A1R) is a G-protein-coupled receptor that preferentially couples to inhibitory Gi/o heterotrimeric G proteins, has been implicated in numerous diseases, yet remains poorly targeted. Here we report the 3.6 Å structure of the human A1R in complex with adenosine and heterotrimeric Gi2 protein determined by Volta phase plate cryo-electron microscopy. Compared to inactive A1R, there is contraction at the extracellular surface in the orthosteric binding site mediated via movement of transmembrane domains 1 and 2. At the intracellular surface, the G protein engages the A1R primarily via amino acids in the C terminus of the Gαi α5-helix, concomitant with a 10.5 Å outward movement of the A1R transmembrane domain 6. Comparison with the agonist-bound ß2 adrenergic receptor-Gs-protein complex reveals distinct orientations for each G-protein subtype upon engagement with its receptor. This active A1R structure provides molecular insights into receptor and G-protein selectivity.

Extracellular loops 2 and 3 of the calcitonin receptor selectively modify agonist binding and efficacy.

Class B peptide hormone GPCRs are targets for the treatment of major chronic disease. Peptide ligands of these receptors display biased agonism and this may provide future therapeutic advantage. Recent active structures of the calcitonin (CT) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptors reveal distinct engagement of peptides with extracellular loops (ECLs) 2 and 3, and mutagenesis of the GLP-1R has implicated these loops in dynamics of receptor activation. In the current study, we have mutated ECLs 2 and 3 of the human CT receptor (CTR), to interrogate receptor expression, peptide affinity and efficacy. Integration of these data with insights from the CTR and GLP-1R active structures, revealed marked diversity in mechanisms of peptide engagement and receptor activation between the CTR and GLP-1R. While the CTR ECL2 played a key role in conformational propagation linked to Gs/cAMP signalling this was mechanistically distinct from that of GLP-1R ECL2. Moreover, ECL3 was a hotspot for distinct ligand- and pathway-specific effects, and this has implications for the future design of biased agonists of class B GPCRs.