Why Do People Watch Pornography? Cross-Cultural Validation of the Pornography Use Motivations Scale (PUMS) and Its Short Form (PUMS-8).

Motivations for pornography use may vary across gender identities, sexual orientations, and geographical regions, warranting examination to promote individual and public health. The aims of this study were to validate the Pornography Use Motivations Scale (PUMS) in a diverse, multicultural sample, and develop a short form (PUMS-8) that can assess a wide range of pornography use motivations. Using data from 42 countries (N = 75,117; Mage = 32.07; SDage = 12.37), enabled us to thoroughly evaluate the dimensionality, validity, and reliability of the Pornography Use Motivations Scale (PUMS), leading to the development of the more concise PUMS-8 short scale. Additionally, language-, nationality-, gender-, and sexual-orientation-based measurement invariance tests were conducted to test the comparability across groups. Both the PUMS and the PUMS-8 assess eight pornography use motivations, and both demonstrated excellent psychometric properties. Sexual Pleasure emerged as the most frequent motivation for pornography use across countries, genders, and sexual orientations, while differences were observed concerning other motivations (e.g. self-exploration was more prevalent among gender-diverse individuals than men or women). The motivational background of pornography use showed high similarity in the examined countries. Both the PUMS and the PUMS-8 are reliable and valid measurement tools to assess different types of motivations for pornography use across countries, genders, and sexual orientations. Both scales are recommended for use in research and clinical settings.

The impact of psychopathic traits on anxiety-related behaviors in a mixed reality environment.

There is an ongoing debate about anxiety deficits in psychopathy and their possible impact on individual behavior. Data on actual anxiety- and threat-related behavior associated with psychopathy is still limited. We performed a mixed reality study using the elevated plus-maze (EPM) in a non-clinical sample (N = 160) to test anxiety-related behavior in relation to psychopathic personality traits measured through the Brief Questionnaire of Psychopathic Personality Traits (FPP). The psychopathy sum score correlated significantly with all measures of anxiety-related behavior on the EPM. Sensation seeking, but not general levels of acrophobia was moreover associated with psychopathic traits. Multivariate analyses revealed that the subscales Fearlessness and Lack of Empathy of the FPP predicted anxious behavior. Our findings are the first to demonstrate the relationship between psychopathic traits and actual behavior in an anxiety-inducing environment. This supports the low-anxiety hypothesis in psychopathy research. Implications for potentially harmful or risky behavior are discussed.

The short version of the Sexual Distress Scale (SDS-3): Measurement invariance across countries, gender identities, and sexual orientations.

Background: The three-item Sexual Distress Scale (SDS-3) has been frequently used to assess distress related to sexuality in public health surveys and research on sexual wellbeing. However, its psychometric properties and measurement invariance across cultural, gender and sexual subgroups have not yet been examined. This multinational study aimed to validate the SDS-3 and test its psychometric properties, including measurement invariance across language, country, gender identity, and sexual orientation groups. Methods: We used global survey data from 82,243 individuals (Mean age=32.39 years; 40.3 % men, 57.0 % women, 2.8 % non-binary, and 0.6 % other genders) participating in the International Sexual Survey (ISS; https://internationalsexsurvey.org/) across 42 countries and 26 languages. Participants completed the SDS-3, as well as questions regarding sociodemographic characteristics, including gender identity and sexual orientation. Results: Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) supported a unidimensional factor structure for the SDS-3, and multi-group CFA (MGCFA) suggested that this factor structure was invariant across countries, languages, gender identities, and sexual orientations. Cronbach's α for the unidimensional score was 0.83 (range between 0.76 and 0.89), and McDonald's ω was 0.84 (range between 0.76 and 0.90). Participants who did not experience sexual problems had significantly lower SDS-3 total scores (M = 2.99; SD=2.54) compared to those who reported sexual problems (M = 5.60; SD=3.00), with a large effect size (Cohen's d = 1.01 [95 % CI=-1.03, -0.98]; p < 0.001). Conclusion: The SDS-3 has a unidimensional factor structure and appears to be valid and reliable for measuring sexual distress among individuals from different countries, gender identities, and sexual orientations.

Social preferences and psychopathy in a sample of male prisoners-a pilot study.

Social decisions are influenced by a person's social preferences. High psychopathy is defined by antisocial behaviour, but the relationship between psychopathy and social preferences remains unclear. In this study, we used a battery of economic games to study social decision-making and social preferences in relation to psychopathy in a sample of 35 male prison inmates, who were arrested for sexual and severe violent offenses (mean age = 39 years). We found no evidence for a relationship between social preferences (measured with the Dictator and Ultimatum Games, Social Value Orientation, and one-shot 2 × 2 games) and psychopathy (measured by the overall Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised score and both factors). These results are surprising but also difficult to interpret due to the small sample size. Our results contribute to the ongoing debate about psychopathy and social decision-making by providing crucial data that can be combined with future datasets to reach large sample sizes that can provide a more nuanced understanding about the relationship between psychopathy and social preferences.

Borderline personality disorder and sexuality: causes and consequences of dissociative symptoms.

BACKGROUND: Sexual risk behavior in patients diagnosed with borderline personality disorder (BPD) is supposed to be associated with traumatic experiences and dissociative symptoms. Nevertheless, scientific research thereon is scarce which might be due to the high prevalence of sexual trauma and fear of overwhelming patients with explicit sexual content. METHODS: We investigated a clinical sample of patients diagnosed with BPD (n = 114) and compared them to a sample of matched healthy controls (HC) (n = 114) concerning the dissociative symptoms derealization, depersonalization, and conversion in sexual situations. In a subgroup of patients with BPD (n = 41) and matched HC (n = 40) dissociative symptoms after exposure to an acoustically presented erotic narrative were assessed in the lab. Regression analyses were used to examine the associations between sexual trauma, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), dissociation in sexual situations, and risky sexual behavior. RESULTS: Patients diagnosed with BPD endorsed higher dissociative symptoms in sexual situations retrospectively and in the lab compared to HC. Regression analyses revealed that depersonalization and conversion symptoms in sexual situations were explained by severity of BPD, while derealization was explained by PTSD symptomatology. Impulsive and sexual behavior with an uncommitted partner were higher in the BPD group and explained by derealization, while conversion showed an inverse association. CONCLUSION: Our findings highlight the importance of addressing distinct dissociative symptoms in sexual situations when counselling and treating women with BPD. In the long term, this could contribute to a reduction in sexual risk behavior in patients with BPD. TRIAL REGISTRATION: This analysis is part of a larger ongoing study and was registered prior to accessing the data (Registration trial DRKS00029716).

Delay discounting of protected sex and compulsive sexual behavior in women with borderline personality disorder.

Background and aims: Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a complex mental health condition characterized by emotional dysregulation, impulsivity, and unstable interpersonal relationships. Some individuals with BPD regularly engage in sexual risk behavior such as unprotected sex and are at higher risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections. This study investigates discounting of condom- or dental dam-protected sex in women with BPD compared with a control group. Methods: Data were collected from 40 women diagnosed with BPD and 40 healthy controls with an average age of 27.28 years (SD = 6.14) using the Sexual Delay Discounting Task (SDT), the Borderline Symptom List-23 (BSL-23), and the Compulsive Sexual Behavior Disorder Scale-19 (CSBD-19). Results: Women with BPD were less likely to use an immediately available condom or dental dam and more likely to discount safer sex than controls. Partner desirability and the perceived STI risk influenced the participants' likelihood of having protected sex. Women with BPD showed more symptoms of compulsive sexual behavior (CSB) than controls. However, sexual delay discounting was not significantly correlated with borderline symptoms or CSB in the BPD group. Discussion and conclusions: These findings contribute to our understanding of sexual impulsivity in women with BPD and highlight the omission and delayed availability of safety measures as important contributors to sexual risk behavior and STI risk in women. Impulsive sexual behavior, as well as the accompanying sexual health concerns, should receive special attention in the treatment of women with BPD.

Effects of estrogen on spatial navigation and memory.

RATIONALE: Animal studies suggest that the so-called "female" hormone estrogen enhances spatial navigation and memory. This contradicts the observation that males generally out-perform females in spatial navigation and tasks involving spatial memory. A closer look at the vast number of studies actually reveals that performance differences are not so clear. OBJECTIVES: To help clarify the unclear performance differences between men and women and the role of estrogen, we attempted to isolate organizational from activational effects of estrogen on spatial navigation and memory. METHODS: In a double-blind, placebo-controlled study, we tested the effects of orally administered estradiol valerate (E2V) in healthy, young women in their low-hormone menstrual cycle phase, compared to healthy, young men. Participants performed several first-person, environmentally rich, 3-D computer games inspired by spatial navigation and memory paradigms in animal research. RESULTS: We found navigation behavior suggesting that sex effects dominated any E2 effects with men performing better with allocentric strategies and women with egocentric strategies. Increased E2 levels did not lead to general improvements in spatial ability in either sex but to behavioral changes reflecting navigation flexibility. CONCLUSION: Estrogen-driven differences in spatial cognition might be better characterized on a spectrum of navigation flexibility rather than by categorical performance measures or skills.

Cross-Cultural Adult ADHD Assessment in 42 Countries Using the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale Screener.

OBJECTIVE: We analyzed adult ADHD symptoms in a cross-cultural context, including investigating the occurrence and potential correlates of adult ADHD and psychometric examination of the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS) Screener. METHOD: Our analysis is based on a large-scale research project involving 42 countries (International Sex Survey, N=72,627, 57% women, Mage=32.84; SDage=12.57). RESULTS: The ASRS Screener demonstrated good reliability and validity, along with partial invariance across different languages, countries, and genders. The occurrence of being at risk for adult ADHD was relatively high (21.4% for women, 18.1% for men). The highest scores were obtained in the US, Canada, and other English-speaking Western countries, with significantly lower scores among East Asian and non-English-speaking European countries. Moreover, ADHD symptom severity and occurrence were especially high among gender-diverse individuals. Significant associations between adult ADHD symptoms and age, mental and sexual health, and socioeconomic status were observed. CONCLUSIONS: Present results show significant cross-cultural variability in adult ADHD occurrence as well as highlight important factors related to adult ADHD. Moreover, the importance of further research on adult ADHD in previously understudied populations (non-Western countries) and minority groups (gender-diverse individuals) is stressed. Lastly, the present analysis is consistent with previous evidence showing low specificity of adult ADHD screening instruments and contributes to the current discussion on accurate adult ADHD screening and diagnosis.

Mental health professionals' use of the ICD-11 classification of impulse control disorders and behavioral addictions: An international field study.

Background and aims: The ICD-11 chapter on mental, behavioral and neurodevelopmental disorders contains new controversial diagnoses including compulsive sexual behavior disorder (CSBD), intermittent explosive disorder (IED) and gaming disorder. Using a vignette-based methodology, this field study examined the ability of mental health professionals (MHPs) to apply the new ICD-11 diagnostic requirements for impulse control disorders, which include CSBD and IED, and disorders due to addictive behaviors, which include gaming disorder, compared to the previous ICD-10 guidelines. Methods: Across eleven comparisons, members of the WHO's Global Clinical Practice Network (N = 1,090) evaluated standardized case descriptions that were designed to test key differences between the diagnostic guidelines of ICD-11 and ICD-10. Results: The ICD-11 outperformed the ICD-10 in the accuracy of diagnosing impulse control disorders and behavioral addictions in most comparisons, while the ICD-10 was not superior in any. The superiority of the ICD-11 was particularly clear where new diagnoses had been added to the classification system or major revisions had been made. However, the ICD-11 outperformed the ICD-10 only in a minority of comparisons in which mental health professionals were asked to evaluate cases with non-pathological high involvement in rewarding behaviors. Discussion and Conclusions: Overall, the present study indicates that the ICD-11 diagnostic requirements represent an improvement over the ICD-10 guidelines. However, additional efforts, such as training programs for MHPs and possible refinements of diagnostic guidance, are needed to avoid over-diagnosis of people who are highly engaged in a repetitive and rewarding behavior but below the threshold for a disorder.

Cross-cultural validation and measurement invariance of anxiety and depression symptoms: A study of the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI) in 42 countries.

BACKGROUND: Depression and anxiety are among the most prevalent mental health issues experienced worldwide. However, whereas cross-cultural studies utilize psychometrically valid and reliable scales, fewer can meaningfully compare these conditions across different groups. To address this gap, the current study aimed to psychometrically assess the Brief Symptomatology Index (BSI) in 42 countries. METHODS: Using data from the International Sex Survey (N = 82,243; Mage = 32.39; SDage = 12.52; women: n = 46,874; 57 %), we examined the reliability of depression and anxiety symptom scores of the BSI-18, as well as evaluated evidence of construct, invariance, and criterion-related validity in predicting clinically relevant variables across countries, languages, genders, and sexual orientations. RESULTS: Results corroborated an invariant, two-factor structure across all groups tested, exhibiting excellent reliability estimates for both subscales. The 'caseness' criterion effectively discriminated among those at low and high risk of depression and anxiety, yielding differential effects on the clinical criteria examined. LIMITATIONS: The predictive validation was not made against a clinical diagnosis, and the full BSI-18 scale was not examined (excluding the somatization sub-dimension), limiting the validation scope of the BSI-18. Finally, the study was conducted online, mainly by advertisements through social media, ultimately skewing our sample towards women, younger, and highly educated populations. CONCLUSIONS: The results support that the BSI-12 is a valid and reliable assessment tool for assessing depression and anxiety symptoms across countries, languages, genders, and sexual orientations. Further, its caseness criterion can discriminate well between participants at high and low risk of depression and anxiety.

The effect of short-term increase of estradiol levels on sexual desire and orgasm frequency in women and men: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial.

Estradiol (E2) has been implicated in sexual functioning in both sexes. E2 levels change distinctively over the menstrual cycle, peaking around ovulation. Data on short-term effects of fluctuating E2 levels on sexual desire are however sparse and mostly based on observational studies. To fill this gap, we ran a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study (N = 126) to investigate the effects of a short-term increase in E2 on sexual desire and orgasm frequency in healthy, young men and women. Circulating E2 levels were elevated through estradiol valerate (E2V) administered over two consecutive days to simulate the rise in E2 levels around ovulation. E2V had no effect on orgasm frequency and only minor effects on sexual desire. On average, the administered E2V dampened change in sexual desire compared to untreated participants with comparable baseline sexual desire in such a way that sexual desire was slightly reduced even in those with higher baseline sexual desire. These findings suggest that short-term increases in E2 have little effect on sexual function and are unlikely to explain the increase in sexual desire around ovulation.

Psychometric properties of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) across cross-cultural subgroups, genders, and sexual orientations: Findings from the International Sex Survey (ISS).

INTRODUCTION: Despite being a widely used screening questionnaire, there is no consensus on the most appropriate measurement model for the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT). Furthermore, there have been limited studies on its measurement invariance across cross-cultural subgroups, genders, and sexual orientations. AIMS: The present study aimed to examine the fit of different measurement models for the AUDIT and its measurement invariance across a wide range of subgroups by country, language, gender, and sexual orientation. METHODS: Responses concerning past-year alcohol use from the participants of the cross-sectional International Sex Survey were considered (N = 62,943; Mage: 32.73; SD = 12.59). Confirmatory factor analysis, as well as measurement invariance tests were performed for 21 countries, 14 languages, three genders, and four sexual-orientation subgroups that met the minimum sample size requirement for inclusion in these analyses. RESULTS: A two-factor model with factors describing 'alcohol use' (items 1-3) and 'alcohol problems' (items 4-10) showed the best model fit across countries, languages, genders, and sexual orientations. For the former two, scalar and latent mean levels of invariance were reached considering different criteria. For gender and sexual orientation, a latent mean level of invariance was reached. CONCLUSIONS: In line with the two-factor model, the calculation of separate alcohol-use and alcohol-problem scores is recommended when using the AUDIT. The high levels of measurement invariance achieved for the AUDIT support its use in cross-cultural research, capable also of meaningful comparisons among genders and sexual orientations.

Human γδ T cell identification from single-cell RNA sequencing datasets by modular TCR expression.

Accurately identifying γδ T cells in large single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) datasets without additional single-cell γδ T cell receptor sequencing (sc-γδTCR-seq) or CITE-seq (cellular indexing of transcriptomes and epitopes sequencing) data remains challenging. In this study, we developed a TCR module scoring strategy for human γδ T cell identification (i.e. based on modular gene expression of constant and variable TRA/TRB and TRD genes). We evaluated our method using 5' scRNA-seq datasets comprising both sc-αßTCR-seq and sc-γδTCR-seq as references and demonstrated that it can identify γδ T cells in scRNA-seq datasets with high sensitivity and accuracy. We observed a stable performance of this strategy across datasets from different tissues and different subtypes of γδ T cells. Thus, we propose this analysis method, based on TCR gene module scores, as a standardized tool for identifying and reanalyzing γδ T cells from 5'-end scRNA-seq datasets.

The eleven-item Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST-11): Cross-cultural psychometric evaluation across 42 countries.

The Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST) is an instrument to screen substance-use-related health risks. However, little is known whether the ASSIST could be further shortened while remaining psychometrically sound across different countries, languages, gender identities, and sexual-orientation-based groups. The study aimed to validate a shortened 11-item ASSIST (ASSIST-11). Using the International Sex Survey data, 82,243 participants (M age = 32.39 years) across 42 countries and 26 languages completed questions from the ASSIST-11 regarding gender identity, sexual orientation, and other information. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and multigroup CFA (MGCFA) evaluated the ASSIST-11's structure and tested measurement invariance across groups. Cronbach's α and McDonald's ω were used to examine the internal consistency. Cohen's d and independent t-tests were used to examine known-group validity. The ASSIST-11 was unidimensional across countries, languages, age groups, gender identities (i.e., men, women, and gender-diverse individuals), and sexual orientations (i.e., heterosexual and sexual minority individuals). Cronbach's α was 0.63 and McDonald's ω was 0.68 for the ASSIST-11. Known-group validity was supported by Cohen's d (range between 0.23 and 0.40) with significant differences (p-values<0.001). The ASSIST-11 is a modified instrument with a unidimensional factor structure across different languages, age groups, countries, gender identities, and sexual orientations. The low internal consistency of the ASSIST-11 might be acceptable as it assesses a broad concept (i.e., use of several different substances). Healthcare providers and researchers may use the ASSIST-11 to quickly assess substance-use information from general populations and evaluate the need to follow up with more detailed questions about substance use.

Compulsive sexual behavior disorder in 42 countries: Insights from the International Sex Survey and introduction of standardized assessment tools.

Background and aims: Despite its inclusion in the 11th revision of the International Classification of Diseases, there is a virtual paucity of high-quality scientific evidence about compulsive sexual behavior disorder (CSBD), especially in underrepresented and underserved populations. Therefore, we comprehensively examined CSBD across 42 countries, genders, and sexual orientations, and validated the original (CSBD-19) and short (CSBD-7) versions of the Compulsive Sexual Behavior Disorder Scale to provide standardized, state-of-the-art screening tools for research and clinical practice. Method: Using data from the International Sex Survey (N = 82,243; Mage = 32.39 years, SD = 12.52), we evaluated the psychometric properties of the CSBD-19 and CSBD-7 and compared CSBD across 42 countries, three genders, eight sexual orientations, and individuals with low vs. high risk of experiencing CSBD. Results: A total of 4.8% of the participants were at high risk of experiencing CSBD. Country- and gender-based differences were observed, while no sexual-orientation-based differences were present in CSBD levels. Only 14% of individuals with CSBD have ever sought treatment for this disorder, with an additional 33% not having sought treatment because of various reasons. Both versions of the scale demonstrated excellent validity and reliability. Discussion and conclusions: This study contributes to a better understanding of CSBD in underrepresented and underserved populations and facilitates its identification in diverse populations by providing freely accessible ICD-11-based screening tools in 26 languages. The findings may also serve as a crucial building block to stimulate research into evidence-based, culturally sensitive prevention and intervention strategies for CSBD that are currently missing from the literature.

The Self-Reported Sexual Real-World Consequences of Sex Doll Use.

It is a growing concern that the use of sex dolls and robots could affect human sexuality. This concern has led to a ban of child-like sex dolls in several countries and a call to ban adult-like sex dolls and robots by some scholars. However, empirical data is largely missing supporting this claim. Here, we present retrospective self-reported quantitative and qualitative data of a large sample (N = 224, 90.5% men, Mean age = 31 years, SD = 14.2) of teleiophilic (i.e., sexual orientation toward adults) and pedo-hebephilic participants. Using an online survey, we found that users reported an overall reduction in sexuality-related behaviors (e.g., porn consumption or visiting of sex workers) in response to doll ownership. Users in a relationship with a human were less affected by doll use, while those in a relationship with a doll reported greater effects. Interestingly, pedo-hebephilic users reported a greater reduction of sexual compulsivity compared to teleiophilic participants following doll use. Additionally, pedo-hebephilic participants more often reported acting out of illegal sexual fantasies with their dolls and a loss of interest in (sexual) intimacy with real children through doll use in the qualitative data. These self-reported data challenge the view that doll use is dangerously affecting human sexuality and instead suggest that dolls may be used as a sexual outlet for potentially dangerous and illegal (sexual) fantasies.

Assessing compulsive sexual behavior disorder: The development and international validation of the compulsive sexual behavior disorder-diagnostic inventory (CSBD-DI).

Background and aims: The World Health Organization's International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) includes Compulsive Sexual Behavior Disorder (CSBD), a new diagnosis that is both controversial and groundbreaking, as it is the first diagnosis to codify a disorder related to excessive, compulsive, and out-of-control sexual behavior. The inclusion of this novel diagnosis demonstrates a clear need for valid assessments of this disorder that may be quickly administered in both clinical and research settings. Design: The present work details the development of the Compulsive Sexual Behavior Disorder Diagnostic Inventory (CSBD-DI) across seven samples, four languages, and five countries. Setting: In the first study, data were collected in community samples drawn from Malaysia (N = 375), the U.S. (N = 877), Hungary (N = 7,279), and Germany (N = 449). In the second study, data were collected from nationally representative samples in the U.S. (N = 1,601), Poland (N = 1,036), and Hungary (N = 473). Findings: Across both studies and all samples, results revealed strong psychometric qualities for the 7-item CSBD-DI, demonstrating evidence of validity via correlations with key behavioral indicators and longer measures of compulsive sexual behavior. Analyses from nationally representative samples revealed residual metric invariance across languages, scalar invariance across gender, strong evidence of validity, and utility in classifying individuals who self-identified as having problematic and excessive sexual behavior, as evidenced by ROC analyses revealing suitable cutoffs for a screening instrument. Conclusion: Collectively, these findings demonstrate the cross-cultural utility of the CSBD-DI as a novel measure for CSBD and provide a brief, easily administrable instrument for screening for this novel disorder.

Masturbation in the Animal Kingdom.

Masturbation is one of the most common sexual behaviors in humans. It is also a phylogenetically widespread trait of various other mammalian and some non-mammalian species. Several hypotheses have been proposed aiming to explain the function of masturbation in primates and other species. These were mainly based on observations of nonhuman primates such as rhesus macaques or bonobos and rodents such as African ground squirrels. Based on these observations various scholars suggested that masturbation improves ejaculate quality, decreases the risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections or is merely a by-product of sexual arousal and thus an alternate outlet to copulation. While these theories may explain some facets of masturbation in some species, they do not explain why masturbation is so widespread and has developed in various species as well as our hominid ancestors. Moreover, the research on which these theories are based is scarce and heavily focused on male masturbation, while female masturbation remains largely unexplored. This sex difference may be responsible for the one-sided theorizing that attributes a specific biological benefit to masturbation. We propose that the widespread prevalence of masturbation in the animal kingdom may be better explained by viewing masturbation as a primarily self-reinforcing behavior that promotes pleasure both in human and in nonhuman species.

Do Endocannabinoids Cause the Runner's High? Evidence and Open Questions.

The runner's high is an ephemeral feeling some humans experience during and after endurance exercise. Recent evidence in mice suggests that a runner's high depends on the release of endocannabinoids (eCBs) during exercise. However, little is known under what circumstances eCBs are released during exercise in humans. This systematic review sampled all data from clinical trials in humans on eCB levels following exercise from the discovery of eCBs until April 20, 2021. PubMed/NCBI, Ovid MEDLINE, and Cochrane library were searched systematically and reviewed following the PRISMA guidelines. From 278 records, 21 met the inclusion criteria. After acute exercise, 14 of 17 studies detected an increase in eCBs. In contrast, after a period of long-term endurance exercise, four articles described a decrease in eCBs. Even though several studies demonstrated an association between eCB levels and features of the runner's high, reliable proof of the involvement of eCBs in the runner's high in humans has not yet been achieved due to methodological hurdles. In this review, we suggest how to advance the study of the influence of eCBs on the beneficial effects of exercise and provide recommendations on how endocannabinoid release is most likely to occur under laboratory conditions.

Is the Anthropomorphization of Sex Dolls Associated with Objectification and Hostility Toward Women? A Mixed Method Study among Doll Users.

Both the ownership and development of sex dolls and robots are passionately debated, with skeptics suspecting that their increasing human-likeness and the accompanying anthropomorphization (i.e., attributing human-likeness) reinforce the objectification of, and hostility toward, women. As empirical data are largely lacking, we scrutinized this hypothesis in a pre-registered study among doll owners (N = 217), comparing two user groups: "toy group" (n = 104; doll as sex toy) and "partner group" (n = 113; doll as partner). We related their objectification tendencies (i.e., seeing women merely as objects, e.g., to promote sexual desire) as well as their hostility toward women, to the anthropomorphization of their doll. Additionally, we collected qualitative data on how participants perceived their doll usage affected their attitudes toward women. The partner group expressed greater levels of hostility and anthropomorphization, moderate in magnitude. Objectification mediated the influence of anthropomorphization on hostility and a higher percentage described a change in attitudes toward women in response to doll use. These data provide the first empirical evidence that the tendency to anthropomorphize dolls is related to negative attitudes toward women. Given the ongoing development of sex robots designed to surpass dolls in human-likeness and anthropomorphization, this finding seems highly significant.