Persistent inequities in maternal mortality in Latin America and the Caribbean, 1990-2019.

BACKGROUND: Despite the resources and personnel mobilized in Latin America and the Caribbean to reduce the maternal mortality ratio (MMR, maternal deaths per 100 000 live births) in women aged 10-54 years by 75% between 2000 and 2015, the region failed to meet the Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) due to persistent barriers to access quality reproductive, maternal, and neonatal health services. METHODS: Using 1990-2019 data from the Global Burden of Disease project, we carried out a two-stepwise analysis to (a) identify the differences in the MMR temporal patterns and (b) assess its relationship with selected indicators: government health expenditure (GHE), the GHE as percentage of gross domestic product (GDP), the availability of human resources for health (HRH), the coverage of effective interventions to reduce maternal mortality, and the level of economic development of each country. FINDINGS: In the descriptive analysis, we observed a heterogeneous overall reduction of MMR in the region between 1990 and 2019 and heterogeneous overall increases in the GHE, GHE/GDP, and HRH availability. The correlation analysis showed a close, negative, and dependent association of the economic development level between the MMR and GHE per capita, the percentage of GHE to GDP, the availability of HRH, and the coverage of SBA. We observed the lowest MMRs when GHE as a percentage of GDP was close to 3% or about US$400 GHE per capita, HRH availability of 6 doctors, nurses, and midwives per 1,000 inhabitants, and skilled birth attendance levels above 90%. CONCLUSIONS: Within the framework of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) agenda, health policies aimed at the effective reduction of maternal mortality should consider allocating more resources as a necessary but not sufficient condition to achieve the goals and should prioritize the implementation of new forms of care with a gender and rights approach, as well as strengthening actions focused on vulnerable groups.

[Pillars and lines of action for integrated and people- and community-centered health systemsPilares e linhas de ação para sistemas integrados de saúde centrados nas pessoas e nas comunidades]. / Pilares y líneas de acción para los sistemas de salud integrados y centrados en las personas y las comunidades.

This paper presents the position of the Latin American working group of the International Foundation for Integrated Care (IFIC). The working group brings together various Latin American actors and organizations in support of actions that facilitate the transformation of health systems in the region towards integrated systems that focus on people not as isolated individuals but as subjects of law in the complex social and environmental contexts where they live and interact. The working group proposes nine pillars of integrated care to be used as a conceptual framework for policy development and changes in practices: 1) shared vision and values; 2) population health; 3) people and communities as partners; 4) resilient communities; 5) capacities of human resources for health; 6) governance and leadership; 7) digital solutions; 8) aligned payment systems; and 9) public transparency. Based on these pillars, lines of work are proposed to strengthen alliances and networks, advocacy, research, and capacity-building, in order to help develop health and social systems that are effectively integrated and focused not only on people but also on communities in Latin America.

Este artigo apresenta o posicionamento do grupo de trabalho latino-americano da Fundação Internacional de Cuidados Integrados (1) (IFIC, na sigla em inglês). A IFIC reúne diversos atores e organizações da América Latina com o fim de apoiar ações que facilitem a transformação dos sistemas de saúde na região para sistemas integrados e centrados nas pessoas, não como indivíduos isolados, mas como sujeitos de direito, nos complexos contextos sociais e ambientais em que vivem e participam. O grupo de trabalho propõe nove pilares de atenção integrada a serem utilizados como marco conceitual na elaboração de políticas e de mudanças nas práticas: 1) visão e valores compartilhados, 2) saúde das populações, 3) pessoas e comunidades como parceiros, 4) comunidades resilientes, 5) capacitação de talento humano em saúde, 6) governança e liderança, 7) soluções digitais, 8) sistemas de pagamento alinhados e 9) transparência perante a população. Com base nesses pilares, são propostas linhas de trabalho nas áreas de fortalecimento de alianças e redes, incidência política, pesquisa e capacitação, que contribuam para materializar na América Latina sistemas sociais e de saúde efetivamente integrados e centrados não só nas pessoas, como também nas comunidades.

Identificación de las zonas con dificultades geográficas de acceso a los servicios públicos de salud en Costa Rica: una propuesta metodológica / Identification of areas with geographical access difficulties to public health services in Costa Rica: a methodological proposal

Objetivo: el propósito de este estudio es presentar y aplicar una herramienta metodológica para identificar las zonas en las cuales el acceso a los servicios de salud pudiera resultar difícil para la población debido a la barrera geográfica, tanto por su distancia al centro médico, como por su capacidad de desplazamiento, específicamente en los cantones de Curridabat, Escazú y Desamparados. Métodos: a partir de la división geográfica del país en unidades geoestadísticas mínimas realizada por el Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censos, se calculó, por cada unidad, la distancia en minutos que se tardaría en recorrer caminando, por la ruta real más rápida, desde la unidad geoestadística mínima hasta la sede de su equipo básico de atención en salud asignado. Resultados: el 3,4% de la población estudiada vivía en una unidad geoestadística mínima clasificada como con dificultad importante de acceso a los servicios de salud, pues presentaba tanto la barrera física de la distancia, como poco desplazamiento en automotores y baja condición socioeconómica. Se identificaron 65 unidades geoestadísticas mínimas (sobre 2014 incluidas en el estudio) que se encontraban a más de 20 minutos caminando de la sede de su equipo básico de atención en salud y cuya población contaba con baja capacidad de desplazamiento y baja condición socioeconómica; la mayoría de ellas en el Área de Salud de Desamparados. Conclusión: este estudio presenta una herramienta metodológica para aplicar en la identificación de zonas a cuya población le pudiera resultar difícil el acceso geográfico a los servicios de salud, tanto por su distancia a un centro médico, como por su capacidad de desplazamiento, específicamente en los cantones de Curridabat, Escazú y Desamparados.

Aim: The objective of this study is to present and apply a methodological tool to identify the areas in which the inhabitants could have geographic access difficulties as a barrier to access to health services, both because of its distance from the health center and its mobility capacity, specifically in the cantons of Curridabat, Escazú and Desamparados. Methods: Based on the geographical division of the country into minimum geostatistical units carried out by the Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censos, the distance in minutes that it would take to walk it was calculated for each unit, based on the actual fastest route between the minimum geostatistical unit and the headquarters of its assigned basic health care team. Results: An 3.4% of the studied population lived in a minimum geostatistical unit classified as having significant difficulty accessing health services since they accumulated both the physical barrier of distance and little mobility in automobiles. 65 minimum geostatistical units were identified (out of 2014 included in the study) as being at more than 20 minutes walking from the basic health care team, with a population with low mobility capacity, and consequently low socioeconomic status. Most of these were found in the Desamparados Health Area. Conclusion: This study presents and applies a methodological tool to identify the areas in which the inhabitants could have geographic access difficulties as a barrier to access to health services, both due to their distance from the health center and their mobility capacity, in Curridabat, Escazú and Desamparados.

Pilares y líneas de acción para los sistemas de salud integrados y centrados en las personas y las comunidades

[RESUMEN]. Se presenta el posicionamiento del grupo de trabajo latinoamericano de la Fundación Internacional para los Cuidados Integrados (1) (IFIC, por su sigla en inglés). Este reúne a diversos actores y organizaciones de América Latina, con el objeto de apoyar acciones que faciliten la transformación de los sistemas de salud en la Región hacia sistemas integrados y centrados en las personas, no como individuos aislados, sino como sujetos de derecho, en los contextos sociales y ambientales complejos donde viven y se vinculan. El grupo de trabajo plantea nueve pilares de la atención integrada para ser utilizados como marco conceptual en la elaboración de políticas y de cambios en las prácticas: 1) visión y valores compartidos, 2) salud de las poblaciones, 3) las personas y las comunidades como socias, 4) comunidades resilientes, 5) capacidades del talento humano en salud, 6) gobernanza y liderazgo, 7) soluciones digitales, 8) sistemas de pago alineados, y 9) transparencia ante la ciudadanía. Desde estos pilares se proponen líneas de trabajo en los ámbitos del fortalecimiento de alianzas y redes, la abogacía, la investigación y generación de capacidades, que contribuyan a materializar sistemas de salud y sociales efectivamente integrados y centrados no solo en las personas, sino también en las comunidades en América Latina.

[ABSTRACT]. This paper presents the position of the Latin American working group of the International Foundation for Integrated Care (IFIC). The working group brings together various Latin American actors and organizations in support of actions that facilitate the transformation of health systems in the region towards integrated systems that focus on people not as isolated individuals but as subjects of law in the complex social and environmental contexts where they live and interact. The working group proposes nine pillars of integrated care to be used as a conceptual framework for policy development and changes in practices: 1) shared vision and values; 2) population health; 3) people and communities as partners; 4) resilient communities; 5) capacities of human resources for health; 6) governance and leadership; 7) digital solutions; 8) aligned payment systems; and 9) public transparency. Based on these pillars, lines of work are proposed to strengthen alliances and networks, advocacy, research, and capacity-building, in order to help develop health and social systems that are effectively integrated and focused not only on people but also on communities in Latin America.

[RESUMO]. Este artigo apresenta o posicionamento do grupo de trabalho latino-americano da Fundação Internacional de Cuidados Integrados (1) (IFIC, na sigla em inglês). A IFIC reúne diversos atores e organizações da América Latina com o fim de apoiar ações que facilitem a transformação dos sistemas de saúde na região para sistemas integrados e centrados nas pessoas, não como indivíduos isolados, mas como sujeitos de direito, nos complexos contextos sociais e ambientais em que vivem e participam. O grupo de trabalho propõe nove pilares de atenção integrada a serem utilizados como marco conceitual na elaboração de políticas e de mudanças nas práticas: 1) visão e valores compartilhados, 2) saúde das populações, 3) pessoas e comunidades como parceiros, 4) comunidades resilientes, 5) capacitação de talento humano em saúde, 6) governança e liderança, 7) soluções digitais, 8) sistemas de pagamento alinhados e 9) transparência perante a população. Com base nesses pilares, são propostas linhas de trabalho nas áreas de fortalecimento de alianças e redes, incidência política, pesquisa e capacitação, que contribuam para materializar na América Latina sistemas sociais e de saúde efetivamente integrados e centrados não só nas pessoas, como também nas comunidades.

Pilares y líneas de acción para los sistemas de salud integrados y centrados en las personas y las comunidades / Pillars and lines of action for integrated and people- and community-centered health systems / Pilares e linhas de ação para sistemas integrados de saúde centrados nas pessoas e nas comunidades

RESUMEN Se presenta el posicionamiento del grupo de trabajo latinoamericano de la Fundación Internacional para los Cuidados Integrados (1) (IFIC, por su sigla en inglés). Este reúne a diversos actores y organizaciones de América Latina, con el objeto de apoyar acciones que faciliten la transformación de los sistemas de salud en la Región hacia sistemas integrados y centrados en las personas, no como individuos aislados, sino como sujetos de derecho, en los contextos sociales y ambientales complejos donde viven y se vinculan. El grupo de trabajo plantea nueve pilares de la atención integrada para ser utilizados como marco conceptual en la elaboración de políticas y de cambios en las prácticas: 1) visión y valores compartidos, 2) salud de las poblaciones, 3) las personas y las comunidades como socias, 4) comunidades resilientes, 5) capacidades del talento humano en salud, 6) gobernanza y liderazgo, 7) soluciones digitales, 8) sistemas de pago alineados, y 9) transparencia ante la ciudadanía. Desde estos pilares se proponen líneas de trabajo en los ámbitos del fortalecimiento de alianzas y redes, la abogacía, la investigación y generación de capacidades, que contribuyan a materializar sistemas de salud y sociales efectivamente integrados y centrados no solo en las personas, sino también en las comunidades en América Latina.

ABSTRACT This paper presents the position of the Latin American working group of the International Foundation for Integrated Care (IFIC). The working group brings together various Latin American actors and organizations in support of actions that facilitate the transformation of health systems in the region towards integrated systems that focus on people not as isolated individuals but as subjects of law in the complex social and environmental contexts where they live and interact. The working group proposes nine pillars of integrated care to be used as a conceptual framework for policy development and changes in practices: 1) shared vision and values; 2) population health; 3) people and communities as partners; 4) resilient communities; 5) capacities of human resources for health; 6) governance and leadership; 7) digital solutions; 8) aligned payment systems; and 9) public transparency. Based on these pillars, lines of work are proposed to strengthen alliances and networks, advocacy, research, and capacity-building, in order to help develop health and social systems that are effectively integrated and focused not only on people but also on communities in Latin America.

RESUMO Este artigo apresenta o posicionamento do grupo de trabalho latino-americano da Fundação Internacional de Cuidados Integrados (1) (IFIC, na sigla em inglês). A IFIC reúne diversos atores e organizações da América Latina com o fim de apoiar ações que facilitem a transformação dos sistemas de saúde na região para sistemas integrados e centrados nas pessoas, não como indivíduos isolados, mas como sujeitos de direito, nos complexos contextos sociais e ambientais em que vivem e participam. O grupo de trabalho propõe nove pilares de atenção integrada a serem utilizados como marco conceitual na elaboração de políticas e de mudanças nas práticas: 1) visão e valores compartilhados, 2) saúde das populações, 3) pessoas e comunidades como parceiros, 4) comunidades resilientes, 5) capacitação de talento humano em saúde, 6) governança e liderança, 7) soluções digitais, 8) sistemas de pagamento alinhados e 9) transparência perante a população. Com base nesses pilares, são propostas linhas de trabalho nas áreas de fortalecimento de alianças e redes, incidência política, pesquisa e capacitação, que contribuam para materializar na América Latina sistemas sociais e de saúde efetivamente integrados e centrados não só nas pessoas, como também nas comunidades.

Relationship between childhood obesity and socio-economic status among primary school children in Costa Rica.

OBJECTIVE: This article analyses the relationship between socio-economic status and the prevalence of overweight and obesity in the primary school population in Costa Rica. DESIGN: A National School Weight/Height Census was disseminated across Costa Rica in 2016. The percentage of children who were overweight or obese was calculated by sex, age and socio-economic indicators (type of institution: private, public, mix; type of geographic location: rural, urban and the level of development of the district of residence: quartiles). A mixed-effects multinomial logistic regression model and mixed-effects logistic regression model were used to analyse the association between the prevalence of being overweight or obese and district socio-economic status. SETTING: The survey was carried out in public and private primary schools across Costa Rica in 2016. PARTICIPANTS: In total, 347 366 students from 6 to 12 years were enrolled in public and private primary schools. RESULTS: The prevalence of overweight and obesity among children was 34·0 %. Children in private schools were more likely to be overweight or obese than students in public schools (OR = 1·10 [1·07, 1·13]). Additionally, children were less likely to be overweight or obese if attending a school in a district of the lowest socio-economic quartile compared with the highest socio-economic quartile (OR = 0·79 [0·75, 0·83]) and in a rural area compared with the urban area (OR = 0·92 [0·87, 0·97]). CONCLUSIONS: Childhood obesity in Costa Rica continues to be a public health problem. Prevalence of overweight and obesity in children was associated with indicators of higher socio-economic status.

Bases teórico-conceptuales para el análisis de inequidades sociales en salud: una discusión / Theoretical Implications for the Analysis of Social Health Inequalities: A Discussion

RESUMEN Las Inequidades Sociales en Salud (ISS) continúan representando un gran reto para la salud pública en los diferentes países del mundo. Por su parte, el estudio, análisis y generación de conocimiento en esta materia ha sido reconocida como prioritaria para la Organización Mundial de la Salud desde 1991. La investigación de las ISS debe basarse en fundamentos teóricos y conceptuales sólidos, pues son estos las que guiarán las decisiones metodológicas en términos de diseño de investigaciones, formulación de intervenciones y políticas públicas en salud. En Latinoamérica, los estudios realizados se han basado primordialmente en experiencias que se han llevado a cabo en países industrializados. Esto ha fomentado que el análisis de las ISS reproduzca posturas teóricas y metodologías, sin necesariamente presentar una perspectiva crítica de los posibles estratificadores sociales que aproximan de la mejor forma los determinantes sociales de la salud en los contextos particulares. Por esta razón, se expone que las aproximaciones teórico-metodológicas deben ajustarse a los contextos específicos de los países; que la estratificación social de la salud debe ser evaluada de forma prioritaria; que los determinantes de la salud individuales y estructurales deben ser considerados dentro de las mediciones; y que la justificación teórica de las decisiones metodológicas realizadas en los estudios y las medidas seleccionadas deben ser explícitas y responder a hipótesis concretas. Esto con el fin de proveer un análisis crítico y herramientas útiles tanto para la investigación como para la toma de decisiones en salud. Este estudio inicia con una síntesis de los principales antecedentes históricos que han permitido la evolución del concepto de ISS. Seguidamente, se presentan los principales conceptos subyacentes relativos a la definición de ISS (determinantes sociales, equidad, justicia, estratificación y gradiente social en salud) y cómo estos deben guiar las decisiones prácticas y metodológicas. Finalmente, se concluye con algunas recomendaciones para la generación de esta evidencia científica para Latinoamérica.

ABSTRACT Social health inequalities (or inequities) continue to represent a great challenge for public health research worldwide. Since 1991, the World Health Organization established that the study and analysis of health inequalities represented a priority for all countries. To better guide methodological and practical implications of health inequalities, research on this topic should present a solid theoretical model, able to impact future public health policies. Previous studies of health inequalities in Latin America are often inspired from abroad experiences, encouraging the reproduction of mainly European theoretical positions and methodologies. However, especially when it comes to this topic, it is known the important role of the social context and culture, playing an important role in promoting differences in health outcomes. From this perspective, to operationalize the different social determinants in health, a critical perspective and thoughtful analysis of the context is mandatory. In order to provide a critical analysis and useful tools for both research and health decision making, we recommend that the theoretical and methodological approaches used in social health inequalities research must be well adapted to the specific contexts; that health social stratification must be assessed as a priority; that individual and the wider health determinants must be well characterized; and that the theoretical justification of the methodological decisions made in the studies and the selected measures must be explicit and should answer specific hypotheses. This research provides a brief historical background, to share the basis for the conceptual evolution of social health inequalities; the main underlying concepts related to the definition of health inequalities (social determinants, equity, justice, stratification and social gradient in health); and some recommendations for the future perspectives of health inequalities research in Latin America.

¿Cómo medir la posición socioeconómica en el marco de las inequidades sociales de salud?: El caso de Costa Rica / Measuring Socioeconomic Position From The Social Inequalities In Health Perspective?: The Case of Costa Rica

RESUMEN Introducción: La medición de la posición socioeconómica (PSE) es central para el análisis de las inequidades sociales en salud (ISS) y requiere de instrumentos actualizados, adaptados a un marco conceptual de referencia, al contexto local y a las características de las poblaciones. El objetivo de este estudio es presentar y discutir, a la luz de la literatura internacional, las ventajas y desventajas de las diferentes formas de medición de la posición socioeconómica para el análisis de las ISS que existen en Costa Rica. Materiales y métodos: Se realizó una revisión sistemática de los instrumentos y métodos existentes en Costa Rica para la medición de las ISS. Resultados: Se encontró que en Costa Rica existe una gran diversidad de instrumentos a nivel individual o geográfico que permiten medir la posición socioeconómica en el marco de las ISS. Cada proxy de la PSE se desarrolla en función de un marco conceptual de referencia, y se debe adaptar al diseño del estudio, a las características de la población de estudio (e.g. edad) y de la factibilidad de la recolección de los datos. Sin embargo, debido a la gran diversidad de variables y marcos conceptuales existentes sobre la PSE, no es posible establecer la existencia de un patrón de oro para la medición de las ISS aplicable a todos los estudios. Conclusión: Esta revisión de la literatura costarricense a la luz de la literatura internacional, podría contribuir a un mejor uso de las herramientas existentes. Permitirá a los investigadores escoger los instrumentos más adaptados al contexto local que han sido validados previamente, los marcos teóricos respectivos que existen detrás de cada medición, y sus eventuales limitaciones.

ABSTRACT Introduction: Measuring socioeconomic position (SEP) is central in the analysis of social inequalities in health (SIH). It requires the use of updated instruments, adapted to a particular conceptual framework, taking into account the local context and the population characteristics. This study aims to present and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of different measurement of SEP used in Costa Rica for the analysis of health inequalities. Materials and methods: A systematic review of the existing instruments and methods used to characterize SEP in Costa Rica was carried out. Results: There is a great diversity of instruments used as proxies of SEP in Costa Rica, both at the individual, and at geographical level. These measures allow to capture specific dimensions of SEP potentially associated with different health outcomes. Being a latent concept, variables approaching SEP should refer to their specific conceptual framework, be adapted to the study design, and population's characteristics (e.g. age), and should consider the study feasibility of data collection. Due to the variety and different conceptual frameworks behind each SEP variable, it is not possible to establish the existence of a gold standard. Conclusion: This review of the Costa Rican health inequalities literature regarding SEP instruments, can contribute to a better use of the existing tools. It will allow researchers to better evaluate the instruments that have been previously validated, their respective theoretical frameworks and limitations, to choose the most suitable proxy of SEP for the local context analyzed.