Reactivity of rat bone marrow-derived macrophages to neurotransmitter stimulation in the context of collagen II-induced arthritis.

INTRODUCTION: Numerous observations indicate that rheumatoid arthritis (RA) has a bone marrow component. In parallel, local synovial changes depend on neuronal components of the peripheral sympathetic nervous system. Here, we wanted to analyze whether collagen II-induced arthritis (CIA) has an impact on number, adhesion, apoptosis, and proliferation of the macrophage subset of bone marrow cells and how alterations in neurotransmitter microenvironment affect these properties. METHODS: Bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs) were isolated from Dark Agouti rats at different stages of CIA, and number, adhesion, caspase 3/7 activity, and proliferation were analyzed in the presence of acetylcholine (ACh), noradrenaline (NA), and vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP). RESULTS: Opposed to enhanced CD11b(+) (cluster of differentiation 11b-positive) and EMR1(+) (epidermal growth factor-like module-containing mucin-like hormone receptor-like 1-positive) cells, characterizing the macrophage subset, in native bone marrow of rats with acute inflammatory arthritis, we found decreased numbers of CIA macrophages after enrichment and culture in comparison with healthy (control) animals. Adhesion studies revealed significantly reduced attachment to plastic in acute arthritis and collagen type I and fibronectin in chronic arthritis. Additionally, we found a strong reduction in proliferation of BMMs at CIA onset and in the chronic phase of CIA. Apoptosis remained unaffected. Neurotransmitter stimulation profoundly affected proliferation, adhesion, and apoptosis of BMMs from CIA and control rats, depending on disease time point. Cultured BMMs from CIA and control animals expressed neurotransmitter receptors for ACh, VIP and NA, but the expression profile seemed not to be affected by CIA. CONCLUSIONS: Induction of CIA distinctly inhibits proliferation of BMMs in low- and non-inflammatory phases and reduces attachment to plastic at the acute inflammatory arthritis stage and adhesion to collagen I and fibronectin at the chronic stage. Influence of neurotransmitter stimulation on adhesion, apoptosis, and proliferation is altered by CIA depending on disease stage. We suggest an altered reactivity of BMMs to neurotransmitter stimulation caused by CIA and maybe also by aging.

Sox9 Modulates proliferation and expression of osteogenic markers of adipose-derived stem cells (ASC).

BACKGROUND: Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) are promising tools for tissue-engineering and musculoskeletal regeneration. They reside within various tissues, like adipose tissue, periosteum, synovia, muscle, dermis, blood and bone marrow, latter being the most common tissue used for MSC isolation. A promising alternative source for MSC is adipose tissue due to better availability and higher yield of MSC in comparison to bone marrow. A drawback is the yet fragmentary knowledge of adipose-derived stem cell (ASC) physiology in order to make them a safe tool for in vivo application. METHODS/RESULTS: Here, we identified Sox9 as a highly expressed and crucial transcription factor in undifferentiated rat ASC (rASC). In comparison to rat bone marrow-derived stem cells (rBMSC), mRNA and protein levels of Sox9 were significantly higher in rASC. To study the role of Sox9 in detail, we silenced Sox9 with shRNA in rASC and examined proliferation, apoptosis and the expression of osteogenic differentiation markers. Our results clearly point to a difference in the expression profile of osteogenic marker genes between undifferentiated rASC and rBMSC in early passages. Sox9 silencing induced the expression of osteocalcin, Vegfα and Mmp13, and decreased rASC proliferation accompanied with an induction of p21 and cyclin D1 expression and delayed S-phase entry. CONCLUSIONS: We suggest a pro-proliferative role for Sox9 in undifferentiated rASC which may explain the higher proliferation rate of rASC compared to rBMSC. Moreover, we propose an osteogenic differentiation delaying role of Sox9 in rASC which suggests that Sox9 expression is needed to maintain rASC in an undifferentiated, proliferative state.

Sox9 modulates cell survival and adipogenic differentiation of multipotent adult rat mesenchymal stem cells.

Sox9 is a key transcription factor in early chondrogenesis with distinct roles in differentiation processes and during embryonic development. Here, we report that Sox9 modulates cell survival and contributes to the commitment of mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) to adipogenic or osteogenic differentiation lineages. We found that the Sox9 activity level affects the expression of the key transcription factor in adipogenic differentiation, C/EBPß, and that cyclin D1 mediates the expression of the osteogenic marker osteocalcin in undifferentiated adult bone-marrow-derived rat MSC. Introducing a stable Sox9 knockdown into undifferentiated rat MSC resulted in a marked decrease in proliferation rate and an increase in apoptotic activity. This was linked to a profound upregulation of p21 and cyclin D1 gene and protein expression accompanied by an induction of caspase 3/7 activity and an inhibition of Bcl-2. We observed that Sox9 silencing provoked a delayed S-phase progression and an increased nuclear localization of p21. The protein stability of cyclin D1 was induced in the absence of Sox9 presumably as a function of altered p38 signalling. In addition, the major transcription factor for adipogenic differentiation, C/EBPß, was repressed after silencing Sox9. The nearly complete absence of C/EBPß protein as a result of increased destabilization of the C/EBPß mRNA and the impact on osteocalcin gene expression and protein synthesis, suggests that a delicate balance of Sox9 level is not only imperative for proper chondrogenic differentiation of progenitor cells, but also affects the adipogenic and probably osteogenic differentiation pathways of MSC. Our results identified Sox9 as an important link between differentiation, proliferation and apoptosis in undifferentiated adult rat mesenchymal stem cells, emphasizing the importance of the delicate balance of a precisely regulated Sox9 activity in MSC not only for proper skeletal development during embryogenesis but probably also for successful repair and regeneration of tissues and organs in adults.

Gene and protein expression profile of naive and osteo-chondrogenically differentiated rat bone marrow-derived mesenchymal progenitor cells.

Adult mesenchymal progenitor cells (MPCs) are adherent stromal cells of non-haematopoietic origin derived from bone marrow and other tissues. Upon limited in vitro expansion, they retain their self-renewal capacity as well as their potential to differentiate into tissues of mesenchymal lineage, such as bone, cartilage, muscle, tendon and connective tissues. Amongst these tissues, cartilage is the only one with insufficient self-renewal capacity, thus MPCs would qualify as an excellent tool for therapeutic regeneration of focal cartilage lesions. However, optimal in vitro manipulation of MPCs is a prerequisite; identification and a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms regulating their differentiation pathways are needed. Despite wide usage of rats as a mammalian experimental model for preclinical fracture healing and orthopaedic tissue regeneration studies, basal gene and protein expression profiles of the osteo-chondrogenic differentiation lineages of adult rat MPCs have rarely been investigated. Therefore, this study was carried out for a quantitative RT-PCR based time-course profiling of osteo- and chondrogenesis related gene expression in undifferentiated and differentiated rat adult MPCs. In addition, with an antibody array analysis TIMP-1, MCP-1 and VEGFalpha-164 were detected in the culture supernatant and CINC-2 and beta-NGF in the cell lysate of MPCs according to their differentiation commitment. Identification of differentially expressed genes and proteins along the osteo-chondrogenic lineage provides a foundation for a more reproducible and reliable quality and differentiation control of rat bone marrow-derived MPCs used for osteochondrogenic differentiation studies.

Green fluorescent protein for detection of the probiotic microorganism Escherichia coli strain Nissle 1917 (EcN) in vivo.

Probiotic microorganisms are defined as viable nutritional agents conferring benefit to the health of the human host. Especially, Escherichia coli strain Nissle 1917 (EcN) was shown to be equally effective as mesalazine in the maintenance of remission in ulcerative colitis (UC). Presumably, the therapeutic effect of EcN is linked to the presence of the strain in the region of interest; however, it remains difficult to follow the orally administered strain on its passage through the complex microbial environment of the intestine in vivo, inhabited dominantly by various E. coli strains, using traditional culturing methods. In this study we transformed EcN and a wild-type E. coli from a laboratory rat (EcR) with a plasmid carrying a gfp gene (pUC-gfp) to obtain EcN- and EcR-GFP to allow in vivo detection without alteration of strain-specific characteristics. Analysis of different strain-specific characteristics included the measurement of stimulation of IL-8 secretion and adhesion in vitro using the epithelial cell line HT-29. The kinetics of intestinal distribution in mice and colonization properties in rats following oral administration was studied in vivo. Detectability of the strain in histologic specimens was analysed using fluorescence microscopy and immunohistochemistry. The identity of fluorescent E. coli strains isolated from stool samples, Peyer's patches (PP) and mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN) was determined by REP-PCR. We were able to demonstrate that EcN and EcN-GFP do not differ in stimulation of IL-8 secretion or adhesion to HT-29 cells. In vivo, EcN-GFP colonies were readily detectable by fluorescence microscopy in luminal samples and also by immunohistochemistry in histological sections allowing analysis of the kinetics of the intestinal passage following oral administration. Translocation of fluorescent and non-fluorescent bacteria into PP and MLN was noted at 6 h post oral administration. EcN-GFP was detectable initially for 14 days in faecal samples of rats, while EcR-GFP was detectable throughout the whole experiment (45 days). Challenge with ampicillin at day 45 demonstrated continuing presence of EcN-GFP in small numbers by reappearing fluorescent colonies. The plasmid was not stable in vivo since non-fluorescent EcN colonies were detected also in faecal samples by REP-PCR. In summary, transformation of EcN to obtain EcN-GFP in our study had no detectable influence on the probiotic microorganism regarding adhesion on and induction of IL-8 secretion of HT-29 cells and allows the detection in mixed microbial environments in vivo but the stability of EcN-GFP in vivo is limited.

Administration of oral probiotic bacteria to pregnant women causes temporary infantile colonization.

BACKGROUND: It is difficult to permanently change the composition of the complex intestinal microflora of the adult. Orally administered probiotic bacteria produce only temporary colonization of the intestine in patients with a fully developed gut microflora. The gastrointestinal tract of a healthy fetus is sterile. During the birth process and rapidly thereafter, microbes from the mother and the surrounding environment colonize the gastrointestinal tract until a dense, complex microflora develops. Probiotic bacteria have been shown to beneficially influence the intestinal and systemic immune system and mediate protection against nosocomial infections affecting the neonate. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to determine whether oral administration of the probiotic micro-organism Lactobacillus rhamnosus strain GG (L. GG) to the pregnant woman leads to colonization of the newborn infant. METHODS: The authors identified six women who were taking L. GG during late pregnancy. None of the children received L. GG after birth, and their mothers discontinued its consumption at the time of delivery. L. GG concentration in fecal samples was determined by colony morphology and molecular analysis. RESULTS: In all four children delivered vaginally and in one of two children delivered by cesarean section, L. GG was present in fecal samples at 1 and 6 months of age. Three children remained colonized for at least 12 months, and in two children L. GG was detected in fecal samples at 24 months of age. Three mothers were tested 1 month post partum and no L. GG was present in fecal samples. No L. GG was found in one of these women 24 months post partum. There was no L. GG detectable in stools of the siblings of two children at the 2-year and 3-years after birth of the index child. L. GG was not isolated from the stools of children whose mothers were not taking L. GG. CONCLUSIONS: Temporary colonization of an infant with L. GG may be possible by colonizing the pregnant mother before delivery. Colonization is stable for as long as 6 months, and in unexplained circumstances may persist for as long as 24 months.

Preventive effects of Escherichia coli strain Nissle 1917 on acute and chronic intestinal inflammation in two different murine models of colitis.

Escherichia coli strain Nissle 1917 (EcN) is as effective in maintaining remission in ulcerative colitis as is treatment with mesalazine. This study aims to evaluate murine models of acute and chronic intestinal inflammation to study the antiinflammatory effect of EcN in vivo. Acute colitis was induced in mice with 2% dextran-sodium sulfate (DSS) in drinking water. EcN was administered from day -2 to day +7. Chronic colitis was induced by transfer of CD4(+) CD62L(+) T lymphocytes from BALB/c mice in SCID mice. EcN was administered three times/week from week 1 to week 8 after cell transfer. Mesenteric lymph node (MLN) cytokine secretion (of gamma interferon [IFN-gamma], interleukin 5 [IL-5], IL-6, and IL-10) was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Histologic sections of the colon were analyzed by using a score system ranging from 0 to 4. Intestinal contents and homogenized MLN were cultured, and the number of E. coli-like colonies was determined. EcN was identified by repetitive extragenic palindromic (REP) PCR. EcN administration to DSS-treated mice reduced the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines (IFN-gamma, 32,477 +/- 6,377 versus 9,734 +/- 1,717 [P = 0.004]; IL-6, 231 +/- 35 versus 121 +/- 17 [P = 0.02]) but had no effect on the mucosal inflammation. In the chronic experimental colitis of the transfer model, EcN ameliorated the intestinal inflammation (histology score, 2.7 +/- 0.2 versus 1.9 +/- 0.3 [P = 0.02]) and reduced the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines. Translocation of EcN and resident E. coli into MLN was observed in the chronic colitis model but not in healthy controls. Administration of EcN ameliorated acute and chronic experimental colitis by modifying proinflammatory cytokine secretion but had no influence on the acute DSS-induced colitis. In this model, preexisting colitis was necessary for translocation of EcN and resident E. coli into MLN.