Homology Modeling of Transporter Proteins.

Membrane transporter proteins are divided into channels/pores and carriers and constitute protein families of physiological and pharmacological importance. Several presently used therapeutic compounds elucidate their effects by targeting membrane transporter proteins, including anti-arrhythmic, anesthetic, antidepressant, anxiolytic and diuretic drugs. The lack of three-dimensional structures of human transporters hampers experimental studies and drug discovery. In this chapter, the use of homology modeling for generating structural models of membrane transporter proteins is reviewed. The increasing number of atomic resolution structures available as templates, together with improvements in methods and algorithms for sequence alignments, secondary structure predictions, and model generation, in addition to the increase in computational power have increased the applicability of homology modeling for generating structural models of transporter proteins. Different pitfalls and hints for template selection, multiple-sequence alignments, generation and optimization, validation of the models, and the use of transporter homology models for structure-based virtual ligand screening are discussed.

The GABAB Receptor-Structure, Ligand Binding and Drug Development.

The γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) type B receptor (GABAB-R) belongs to class C of the G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs). Together with the GABAA receptor, the receptor mediates the neurotransmission of GABA, the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (CNS). In recent decades, the receptor has been extensively studied with the intention being to understand pathophysiological roles, structural mechanisms and develop drugs. The dysfunction of the receptor is linked to a broad variety of disorders, including anxiety, depression, alcohol addiction, memory and cancer. Despite extensive efforts, few compounds are known to target the receptor, and only the agonist baclofen is approved for clinical use. The receptor is a mandatory heterodimer of the GABAB1 and GABAB2 subunits, and each subunit is composed of an extracellular Venus Flytrap domain (VFT) and a transmembrane domain of seven α-helices (7TM domain). In this review, we briefly present the existing knowledge about the receptor structure, activation and compounds targeting the receptor, emphasizing the role of the receptor in previous and future drug design and discovery efforts.

Exploring Conformational Dynamics of the Extracellular Venus flytrap Domain of the GABAB Receptor: A Path-Metadynamics Study.

γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (CNS). Dysfunctional GABAergic neurotransmission is associated with numerous neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders. The GABAB receptor (GABAB-R) is a heterodimeric class C G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) comprised of GABAB1a/b and GABAB2 subunits. The orthosteric binding site for GABA is located in the extracellular Venus flytrap (VFT) domain of the GABAB1a/b. Knowledge about molecular mechanisms and druggable receptor conformations associated with activation is highly important to understand the receptor function and for rational drug design. Currently, the conformational changes of the receptor upon activation are not well described. On the basis of other class C members, the VFT is proposed to fluctuate between an open/inactive and closed/active state and one of these conformations is stabilized upon ligand binding. In the present study, we investigated the dynamics of the GABAB1b-R VFT in the apo form by combining unbiased molecular dynamics with path-metadynamics. Our simulations confirmed the open/inactive and closed/active state as the main conformations adopted by the receptor. Sizeable energy barriers were found between stable minima, suggesting a relatively slow interconversion. Previously undisclosed metastable states were also identified, which might hold potential for future drug discovery efforts.

In Silico Methods for the Discovery of Orthosteric GABAB Receptor Compounds.

The GABAB receptor (GABAB-R) is a heterodimeric class C G protein-coupled receptor comprised of the GABAB1a/b and GABAB2 subunits. The endogenous orthosteric agonist γ-amino-butyric acid (GABA) binds within the extracellular Venus flytrap (VFT) domain of the GABAB1a/b subunit. The receptor is associated with numerous neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders including learning and memory deficits, depression and anxiety, addiction and epilepsy, and is an interesting target for new drug development. Ligand- and structure-based virtual screening (VS) are used to identify hits in preclinical drug discovery. In the present study, we have evaluated classical ligand-based in silico methods, fingerprinting and pharmacophore mapping and structure-based in silico methods, structure-based pharmacophores, docking and scoring, and linear interaction approximation (LIA) for their aptitude to identify orthosteric GABAB-R compounds. Our results show that the limited number of active compounds and their high structural similarity complicate the use of ligand-based methods. However, by combining ligand-based methods with different structure-based methods active compounds were identified in front of DUDE-E decoys and the number of false positives was reduced, indicating that novel orthosteric GABAB-R compounds may be identified by a combination of ligand-based and structure-based in silico methods.

Ligand-guided homology modelling of the GABAB2 subunit of the GABAB receptor.

γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, and disturbances in the GABAergic system have been implicated in numerous neurological and neuropsychiatric diseases. The GABAB receptor is a heterodimeric class C G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) consisting of GABAB1a/b and GABAB2 subunits. Two GABAB receptor ligand binding sites have been described, namely the orthosteric GABA binding site located in the extracellular GABAB1 Venus fly trap domain and the allosteric binding site found in the GABAB2 transmembrane domain. To date, the only experimentally solved three-dimensional structures of the GABAB receptor are of the Venus fly trap domain. GABAB receptor allosteric modulators, however, show great therapeutic potential, and elucidating the structure of the GABAB2 transmembrane domain may lead to development of novel drugs and increased understanding of the allosteric mechanism of action. Despite the lack of x-ray crystal structures of the GABAB2 transmembrane domain, multiple crystal structures belonging to other classes of GPCRs than class A have been released within the last years. More closely related template structures are now available for homology modelling of the GABAB receptor. Here, multiple homology models of the GABAB2 subunit of the GABAB receptor have been constructed using templates from class A, B and C GPCRs, and docking of five clusters of positive allosteric modulators and decoys has been undertaken to select models that enrich the active compounds. Using this ligand-guided approach, eight GABAB2 homology models have been chosen as possible structural representatives of the transmembrane domain of the GABAB2 subunit. To the best of our knowledge, the present study is the first to describe homology modelling of the transmembrane domain of the GABAB2 subunit and the docking of positive allosteric modulators in the receptor.

Regulation of liver X receptor target genes by 22-functionalized oxysterols. Synthesis, in silico and in vitro evaluations.

The endogenous oxysterol 22(R)-hydroxycholesterol (22RHC, 1) is an LXR agonist which upregulates genes of critical involvement in human cholesterol- and lipid metabolism. In contrast, its synthetic epimer 22(S)-hydroxycholesterol (22SHC, 8) has shown specific antagonistic effects in recent studies, avoiding unwanted side effects provided by potent LXR agonists. In terms of LXR modulation, the aim of this study was to compare 22SHC (8), 22RHC (1) and synthesized ligands with keto- and amide functionality in the 22nd position of the cholesterol scaffold. 22SHC (8) and 22RHC (1) performed as expected while 22-ketocholesterol (22KC, 10) revealed an attractive in vitro profile for further investigation in terms of anti-atherosclerotic properties as selective upregulation of the ATP-binding cassette transporter ABCA1 was observed. A new synthesized amide derivate, Fernholtz cyclohexylamide (13) was shown to reduce lipogenesis in a dose-responsive manner and abolish the effect of the potent LXR agonist T0901317 when administered simultaneously.

Synthesis, in vitro and in vivo biological evaluation of new oxysterols as modulators of the liver X receptors.

Liver X Receptor (LXR) modulators have shown potential as drugs since they target genes affecting metabolism and fatty acid synthesis. LXR antagonists are of particular interest since they are able to reduce the synthesis of complex fatty acids and glucose uptake. Based on molecular modeling, five new cholesterol mimics were synthesized, where four contained a hydroxyl group in the 22-S-position. The new compounds were screened in vitro against several genes affecting lipid metabolism. The compound that performed best in vitro was a dimethylamide derivative of 22(S)-hydroxycholesterol and it was chosen for in vivo testing. However, the blood plasma analysis from the in vivo tests revealed a concentration lower than needed to give any response, indicating either rapid metabolism or low bioavailability.

Identification of novel serotonin transporter compounds by virtual screening.

The serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) transporter (SERT) plays an essential role in the termination of serotonergic neurotransmission by removing 5-HT from the synaptic cleft into the presynaptic neuron. It is also of pharmacological importance being targeted by antidepressants and psychostimulant drugs. Here, five commercial databases containing approximately 3.24 million drug-like compounds have been screened using a combination of two-dimensional (2D) fingerprint-based and three-dimensional (3D) pharmacophore-based screening and flexible docking into multiple conformations of the binding pocket detected in an outward-open SERT homology model. Following virtual screening (VS), selected compounds were evaluated using in vitro screening and full binding assays and an in silico hit-to-lead (H2L) screening was performed to obtain analogues of the identified compounds. Using this multistep VS/H2L approach, 74 active compounds, 46 of which had K(i) values of ≤1000 nM, belonging to 16 structural classes, have been identified, and multiple compounds share no structural resemblance with known SERT binders.

Homology modeling of human γ-butyric acid transporters and the binding of pro-drugs 5-aminolevulinic acid and methyl aminolevulinic acid used in photodynamic therapy.

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a safe and effective method currently used in the treatment of skin cancer. In ALA-based PDT, 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA), or ALA esters, are used as pro-drugs to induce the formation of the potent photosensitizer protoporphyrin IX (PpIX). Activation of PpIX by light causes the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and toxic responses. Studies have indicated that ALA and its methyl ester (MAL) are taken up into the cells via γ-butyric acid (GABA) transporters (GATs). Uptake via GATs into peripheral sensory nerve endings may also account for one of the few adverse side effects of ALA-based PDT, namely pain. In the present study, homology models of the four human GAT subtypes were constructed using three x-ray crystal structures of the homologous leucine transporter (LeuT) as templates. Binding of the native substrate GABA and the possible substrates ALA and MAL was investigated by molecular docking of the ligands into the central putative substrate binding sites in the outward-occluded GAT models. Electrostatic potentials (ESPs) of the putative substrate translocation pathway of each subtype were calculated using the outward-open and inward-open homology models. Our results suggested that ALA is a substrate of all four GATs and that MAL is a substrate of GAT-2, GAT-3 and BGT-1. The ESP calculations indicated that differences likely exist in the entry pathway of the transporters (i.e. in outward-open conformations). Such differences may be exploited for development of inhibitors that selectively target specific GAT subtypes and the homology models may hence provide tools for design of therapeutic inhibitors that can be used to reduce ALA-induced pain.

Synthesis, antidepressant evaluation and docking studies of long-chain alkylnitroquipazines as serotonin transporter inhibitors.

Twelve alkyl analogues (1-12) of the high-affinity serotonin transporter (SERT) inhibitor 6-nitroquipazine (6-NQ) were synthesized and studied using in vitro radioligand competition binding assays to determine their binding affinity (Ki ). The putative antidepressant activity of five of the binders with the highest SERT binding affinities was studied by the forced swim and locomotor activity mouse tests. The three-dimensional (3D) structures of 8 and 9 were determined using NOE NMR technique. Flexible docking of the compounds was undertaken to illustrate the binding of the compounds in the SERT model. Our results showed that several of the 6-NQ analogues are high-affinity SERT inhibitors and indicated that the octyl (8), decyl (10) and dodecyl (12) 6-NQ analogues exhibit moderate antidepressant activity.

Synthesis, in vitro binding studies and docking of long-chain arylpiperazine nitroquipazine analogues, as potential serotonin transporter inhibitors.

It is well known that 6-nitroquipazine exhibits about 150-fold higher affinity for the serotonin transporter (SERT) than quipazine and recently we showed quipazine buspirone analogues with high to moderate SERT affinity. Now we have designed and synthesized several 6-nitroquipazine buspirone derivatives. Unexpectedly, their SERT binding affinities were moderate, and much lower than that of the previously studied quipazine buspirone analogues. To explain these findings, docking studies of both groups of compounds into two different homology models of human SERT was performed using a flexible target-ligand docking approach (4D docking). The crystal structures of leucine transporter from Aquifex aeolicus in complex with leucine and with tryptophan were used as templates for the SERT models in closed and outward-facing conformations, respectively. We found that the latter conformation represents the most reliable model for binding of buspirone analogues. Docking into that model showed that the nitrated compounds acquire a rod like shape in the binding pocket with polar groups (nitro- and imido-) at the ends of the rod. 6-Nitro substituents gave steric clashes with amino acids located at the extracellular loop 4, which may explain their lower affinity than corresponding quipazine buspirone analogues. The results from the present study may suggest chemical design strategies to improve the SERT modulators.

Substrate binding and translocation of the serotonin transporter studied by docking and molecular dynamics simulations.

The serotonin (5-HT) transporter (SERT) plays an important role in the termination of 5-HT-mediated neurotransmission by transporting 5-HT away from the synaptic cleft and into the presynaptic neuron. In addition, SERT is the main target for antidepressant drugs, including the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). The three-dimensional (3D) structure of SERT has not yet been determined, and little is known about the molecular mechanisms of substrate binding and transport, though such information is very important for the development of new antidepressant drugs. In this study, a homology model of SERT was constructed based on the 3D structure of a prokaryotic homologous leucine transporter (LeuT) (PDB id: 2A65). Eleven tryptamine derivates (including 5-HT) and the SSRI (S)-citalopram were docked into the putative substrate binding site, and two possible binding modes of the ligands were found. To study the conformational effect that ligand binding may have on SERT, two SERT-5-HT and two SERT-(S)-citalopram complexes, as well as the SERT apo structure, were embedded in POPC lipid bilayers and comparative molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were performed. Our results show that 5-HT in the SERT-5-HT(B) complex induced larger conformational changes in the cytoplasmic parts of the transmembrane helices of SERT than any of the other ligands. Based on these results, we suggest that the formation and breakage of ionic interactions with amino acids in transmembrane helices 6 and 8 and intracellular loop 1 may be of importance for substrate translocation.

Molecular mechanism of serotonin transporter inhibition elucidated by a new flexible docking protocol.

The two main groups of antidepressant drugs, the tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) and the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), as well as several other compounds, act by inhibiting the serotonin transporter (SERT). However, the binding mode and molecular mechanism of inhibition in SERT are not fully understood. In this study, five classes of SERT inhibitors were docked into an outward-facing SERT homology model using a new 4D ensemble docking protocol. Unlike other docking protocols, where protein flexibility is not considered or is highly dependent on the ligand structure, flexibility was here obtained by side chain sampling of the amino acids of the binding pocket using biased probability Monte Carlo (BPMC) prior to docking. This resulted in the generation of multiple binding pocket conformations that the ligands were docked into. The docking results showed that the inhibitors were stacked between the aromatic amino acids of the extracellular gate (Y176, F335) presumably preventing its closure. The inhibitors interacted with amino acids in both the putative substrate binding site and more extracellular regions of the protein. A general structure-docking-based pharmacophore model was generated to explain binding of all studied classes of SERT inhibitors. Docking of a test set of actives and decoys furthermore showed that the outward-facing ensemble SERT homology model consistently and selectively scored the majority of active compounds above decoys, which indicates its usefulness in virtual screening.

A short update on the structure of drug binding sites on neurotransmitter transporters.

BACKGROUND: The dopamine (DAT), noradrenalin (NET) and serotonin (SERT) transporters are molecular targets for different classes of psychotropic drugs. Cocaine and the SSRI (S)-citalopram block neurotransmitter reuptake competitively, but while cocaine is a non-selective reuptake inhibitor, (S)-citalopram is a selective SERT inhibitor. FINDINGS: Here we present comparisons of the binding sites and the electrostatic potential surfaces (EPS) of DAT, NET and SERT homology models based on two different LeuTAa templates; with a substrate (leucine) in an occluded conformation (PDB id 2a65), and with an inhibitor (tryptophan) in an open-to-out conformation (PDB id 3f3a). In the occluded homology models, two conserved aromatic amino acids (tyrosine and phenylalanine) formed a gate between the putative binding pockets, and this contact was interrupted in the open to out conformation. The EPS of DAT and NET were generally negative in the vestibular area, whereas the EPS of the vestibular area of SERT was more neutral. CONCLUSIONS: The findings presented here contribute as an update on the structure of the binding sites of DAT, NET and SERT. The updated models, which have larger ligand binding site areas than models based on other templates, may serve as improved tools for virtual ligand screening.