Minimum space requirements for cattle: An approach based on photographic records.

BACKGROUND: The space requirements for accommodating cattle during confinement are based on assessment of both the physical space occupied by the animals and that needed for essential behaviours. The aim of this study was to estimate the area (m2 ) occupied by cattle of different liveweights in the static standing (ST), recumbency (SR) and sleeping (SL) postures. METHODS: The study was conducted in Chile. The area (m2 ) occupied by 26 female beef cross cattle with liveweights between 45 and 642 kg was estimated in the ST, SR and SL postures through planimetry using overhead photographs. The allometric coefficient k value was obtained for each posture using linear regression equations from the measured weight (kg0.66 ) and area occupied. RESULTS: Less but more variable space was occupied by each individual in the ST posture compared to SR or SL posture, with clear correlations between weight and occupied area. The k values obtained were 0.014 (ST), 0.023 (SR) and 0.021 (SL), which are all less than international recommendations for the same postures. LIMITATIONS: The methodology needs refinement to reduce the distance to the object optical effect in the different postures. Further work is also needed to determine additional space requirements for behavioural needs and movements associated with each posture and change of posture, depending on the type of confinement. CONCLUSIONS: We provide a scientific basis on which to objectively establish absolute minimum static space requirements for cattle of different breeds, types, weights and anatomical conformations and calculate k values.

Animal welfare in Latin America: Trends and characteristics of scientific publications.

The present study constitutes a review of the scientific articles about animal welfare in terrestrial farmed animals, published in 19 countries of Latin America. The main objectives were to quantify and characterize articles produced between 1992 and 2021 in farm animals' welfare using "Web of Science [v.5.32]" and "CAB Abstracts" databases. A total of 663 articles were found for the period analyzed, which were mainly in English (87%). The countries with the most publications were Brazil (43%), México (25%), Chile (12%), Uruguay (10%), Colombia (4%) and Argentina (2%). Cattle was the farm species most considered in the publications (41%), and the studies addressed mostly the on-farm production stage (76%). There was a rapid increase in the number of articles published in the last 15 years, accounting for 95% of the publications. This could be related to the publication of welfare standards by the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH) since 2005, the creation of the Collaborating Center for Animal Welfare and Sustainable Livestock Systems-Chile-Uruguay-México in 2009, a Regional Strategy of Animal Welfare prompted by the WOAH in 2012 and the inclusion of animal welfare in the veterinary curriculum. The fact that most articles were in English shows that Latin American researchers have somehow overcome the challenge of publishing in a non-native language and their research can be read/cited worldwide. However considerable gaps in scientific productivity were identified in comparison to European and North American countries. Scientific research concerning the livestock industry in Latin America faces new challenges arising from the need to move toward more sustainable production systems within the One Welfare and One Health frame.

Temperature, but not excess of glycogen, regulates "in vitro" AMPK activity in muscle samples of steer carcasses.

Postmortem muscle temperature affects the rate of pH decline in a linear manner from 37.5°C to 0-2°C. The pH decline is correlated with the enzymatic degradation of glycogen to lactate and this process includes the metabolic coupling between glycogenolysis and glycolysis, and that are strongly upregulated by the AMPK. In this study, we used 12 samples previously characterized by have different muscle glycogen concentration, lactate and AMPK activity, selected from 38 steers that produced high final pH (>5.9) and normal final pH (<5.8) carcasses at 24 h postmortem. Moreover, we evaluated changes in the AMPK activity in samples from both categories incubated at 37, 25, 17 and 5°C and supplemented with exogenous glycogen. Finally, we analysed if there were structural differences between polymers from both categories. Our results showed that "in vitro" enzymatic AMPK activity evaluated at both 0.5 or 24 h was greater in samples from normal then high pH categories (p <0.01), and in all temperature of incubation analysed (17, 25 and 37°C). For other hand, a greater AMPK activity were obtained in samples incubated at 17 that 25 or 37°C, in normal carcasses at both 0.5 or 24 h (p < 0.01), as also in samples from carcasses categorized as high pH, but at 24 h (p < 0.05). Interestingly, AMPK activity was totally abolished at 5°C, independent of final pH category of carcasses, and was confirmed that the incubation temperature at which the maximum activity was obtained (p < 0.01), at least in carcasses with a normal pH is at 17°C. The enzymatic AMPK activity did not change in relation to excess glycogen (p > 0.05) and we did not detect structural differences in the polymers present in samples from both categories (p > 0.05), suggesting that postmortem AMPK activity may be highly sensitive to temperature and not to in vitro changes in glycogen concentration (p > 0.05). Our results allow concluding that normal concentrations of muscle glycogen immediately at the time of slaughter (0.5 h) and an adequate cooling managing of carcasses are relevant to let an efficient glycogenolytic/glycolytic flow required for lactate accumulation and pH decline, through the postmortem AMPK signalling pathway.

Transport, Associated Handling Procedures and Behaviour of Calves Marketed through Chilean Auction Markets.

In Chile, selling animals through livestock markets is common. At markets, stressful events like loading, unloading and travel are at least duplicated. We described procedures associated with transport of calves at 20 markets and evaluated compliance with Chilean law by performing a survey of drivers who transport calves from origin farms to markets (OM) and from markets to destination (MD). During loading and unloading, we evaluated handling by stockpersons, facilities, fitness for transport, and behavioural indicators of the calves through direct observation using protocols. A total of 80% of drivers claimed having the training required by law. The mean travel time was 1 h 31 min for OM and 1 h 44 min for MD journeys (overall range 5 min-40.5 h). Most drivers used bedding material and provided adequate space availability. A total of 99.2% of the observed calves were assessed as fit to transport; slipping, turning back, vocalizing and balking were frequent behaviours observed during loading and unloading. Prohibited practices like prodding and hitting using driving devices were still observed, mainly during loading. Compliance with the law during transport of calves was adhered to; however, the associated handling within markets was still inadequate, evidencing need for training in order to improve animal welfare.

Behavior and Health Indicators to Assess Cull Cow's Welfare in Livestock Markets.

The welfare status of cull cows going through livestock markets was assessed in 12 premises in Chile, using behavioral and health indicators observed during unloading, auction, and loading (once in winter and once in summer). Groups of cows were observed by the same observer and the following indicators were recorded at each stage: slips, falls, balks, turns, jumps, and vocalizations of cows were considered as behavioral events and a proportion was calculated based on the number of observed events per group divided by the number of cows per group to give a behavioral event index (BEI). Health status of the cows was assessed during auction by recording the proportion of cows with low body condition, lameness, udder problems, tegumentary lesions, and tail abnormalities. Handler behavior was assessed using a count of negative tactile interactions (NTI) with the cows, like blows/hits, kicks, and pokes with the devices used to drive them, then a NTI index (NTII) was calculated as for BEI. Using the groups of cows as the statistical unit, statistical models were built and used to identify how NTII, some facilities features and comingling were associated with BEI registered during unloading, auction, and loading and also to calculate if the selling price was associated with the different health problems of cows, using the software MLwiN 3.03. A total of 1,103 groups of cows (n = 3,963 cows) were observed, finding a high percentage of slips and balks, whereas hitting and poking were frequent NTI. The highest mean BEI was observed during unloading in winter (1.10), whilst the lowest one was found during auction in summer (0.34). There was an increase of 0.11 in BEI for every extra unit increase in the NTII by the handlers. The BEI was negatively affected by the winter season compared to summer. Of 1,608 cows, 49.8% had a low body condition, 28.3% had udder problems, 24% were lame, 8.7% presented tegumentary lesions, and 3.1% tail abnormalities. It can be concluded that the health of the cull cows is already compromised when leaving the farms; cow behavior and handler tactile interactions with the cows are useful indicators to assess the welfare of cull cows at livestock markets.

Dairy Calf Welfare and Factors Associated with Diarrhea and Respiratory Disease Among Chilean Dairy Farms.

This study aimed to describe management practices that may compromise the welfare of unweaned dairy calves on 29 dairy farms in Chile, and identify factors associated with diarrhea and respiratory disease (n = 700 calves). Evaluations were divided into protocol-, facility-, and animal-based measurements. Calf diarrhea and respiratory disease data were analyzed using logistic regression models. Management practices identified as risk factors for poor calf welfare were: relying on the mother to provide colostrum (48.0% of the farms); using restrictive milk feeding (65.5%), and unpasteurized waste milk (51.7%); giving water after 30 days of age (17.2%); disbudding without analgesia (89.6%) or anesthesia (79.3%); lacking euthanasia protocols (61.5%). Factors significantly (p < 0.05) associated with increased odds of diarrhea were: cleaning the calves´ bed once a week and 2-3 times a week compared with every day, using milk replacer and untreated waste milk compared with treated waste milk (pasteurized or acidified), animals scored dirty in the calf cleanliness score compared with clean animals, and greater herd size. Factors significantly associated with increased odds of respiratory disease were: less pen space allowance (<1.8 m2), farms that did not check colostrum quality, and animals that scored dirty and moderately dirty compared with clean calves. These results suggest the need to improve specific management practices associated with reduced welfare and health in dairy calves in Chile.

Associations between Pre-Slaughter and Post-Slaughter Indicators of Animal Welfare in Cull Cows.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the welfare of cull cows in a slaughtering plant, using indicators of health on arrival and indicators of handling during the stunning process. These pre-slaughter indicators were associated with post-slaughter indicators of the same cows, such as carcass bruising and condemnations. Transport staff surveys showed that all drivers had been trained on animal welfare. All loads of cows came directly from farms and had an average transport duration of 5 h 22 min. Indicators were registered in 237 cows during unloading at the slaughterhouse and in the stunning box. Bruises and condemnations were recorded post-slaughter in the carcasses of the same cows. Results at arrival showed that 48% of the cows had low body condition, 50% had mammary problems, and 24% suffered from lameness. During stunning, 16% of cows needed a second shot, and 54% exceeded the 60 s established as a recommended interval between stunning and bleeding. During the post-slaughter evaluation, 50% of the carcasses had more than two bruises and 70.46% had a bruise severity score different from zero. Low body condition was a risk factor to increase the severity of bruises; low body condition and mammary problems increased carcass condemnations; the stunning process indicators were not statistically associated with the severity of the bruises. For cull cows the main animal welfare issue originates at farm level.

Factors Affecting the Welfare of Calves in Auction Markets.

Marketing cattle through auctions increases marketing time, exposing animals to more stressful events. Within Chile, 37% of auctioned cattle are "calves". To assess factors that may be affecting the welfare of calves during movement and penning, twelve markets were visited to evaluate behavioral indicators of welfare, handling, and facilities. Behavioral indicators during movement were classified into movement and other behaviors, and indicators during penning were classified into positive or negative behavioral welfare indicators. For each group of calves, an index was calculated based on a proportion of observed behavioral indicators. Statistical models were built to identify variables associated with changes in these indices. Presence of inappropriate driving, inadequate lighting, and slippery floor was associated with a movement index increase (poorer welfare). Negative tactile interactions were associated with an increase, and group size was associated with a decrease in movement index and other behavior indices. During penning, not mixing animals from different sources was associated with an increase and stocking density with a decrease in positive welfare index. Number of auctioned cattle, observation number, and not mixing with incompatible and/or with calves from different sources were factors associated with a decrease in negative welfare index, and the presence of males was associated with an increase. Behavioral welfare indicators were mostly associated with handling.

Physiological and Behavioural Responses of Cattle to High and Low Space, Feed and Water Allowances During Long Distance Transport in the South of Chile.

Long distance transport of livestock from Patagonia to central Chile involves both road and sea transport and has a potential impact on the welfare of animals. Fifty Bos taurus cattle of approximate age six months were exposed to a journey of four days, with both the sea and road components undertaken in a truck (roll-off roll-on system) with two pens of different dimensions. Thirty-two and eighteen cattle were randomly allocated to two treatment groups: Low and High welfare standards, which were provided 0.66 m2/head and 0.86 m2/head, respectively, and a fixed amount of feed and water daily to each pen, 1.25 kg hay/head and 3.1 L water/head in the Low welfare treatment and 2.22 kg/head and 5.6 L/head in the High welfare treatment, respectively. Low welfare animals had increased plasma total protein and albumin, which is suggested to be due to limited water availability, and also haptoglobin, suggesting inflammatory responses. Cattle in the High welfare treatment spent more time eating and ruminating than those in the Low space allowance, but they had increased cortisol at the end of the journey, perhaps reflecting increased fighting with more space. Cattle welfare in both treatments was adversely affected by the limited feed and water supplies, with increased beta-hydroxybutyrate at the end of the voyage; total protein was increased in just the low welfare standard group where low space allowance and less food and water was provided. Creatine phosphokinase also increased after the journey, compared with before, indicating bruising. Limiting feed and water availability to cattle in the low welfare treatment resulted in physiological evidence of undernutrition and low hydration status, but it also reduced the stress response, probably because there was less fighting.

Early differential gene expression in beef Longissimus thoracis muscles from carcasses with normal (<5.8) and high (>5.9) ultimate pH.

The objective of this study was to investigate early postmortem (0.5 h) gene expression in beef Longissimus thoracis (LT) muscles from carcasses with NORMAL (<5.8) and HIGH (>5.9) ultimate pH (pHu). A total of 53 transcripts were differentially expressed (P-value <.05): 40 showed up-regulation and 13 showed down-regulation in HIGH pHu carcasses. Four up-regulated (PDK4, GADD45B, MAOA, METTL21C) genes were confirmed (P < .05) by q-PCR. HIGH pHu samples resulted with lower values in glycolytic potential and AMP-activated protein kinase activity compared to NORMAL at 0.5 and 24 h postmortem (P < .05). Functional pathway analysis showed that calcium transport and GADD45 signaling pathways are associated with the development of HIGH pH meat. Genes involved in stress-related signaling, such as GADD45B, METTL21C and MAOA were overexpressed. These genes are involved in stress signaling that might be affecting Ca2+ transport and oxidative metabolism pathways in HIGH pH muscles.

Sheep Farmers' Perception of Welfare and Pain Associated with Routine Husbandry Practices in Chile.

Considering the public concern about the welfare of farm animals during routine husbandry practices, this study aimed to determine how husbandry practices are carried out in Chilean farms, sheep farmers' perceptions of animal welfare and pain, and factors that affect them, as well as the level of agreement among farmers in the recognition of pain associated with these practices. Using a self-administered survey, participants were asked about their sociodemographic information, how husbandry practices are carried out in their farms, and their pain perception for seven of these common husbandry procedures using a numerical rating scale (0 to 10). A total of 165 farmers completed the survey and perceived castration and tail docking as the most painful practices in lambs (median pain score 10 vs. 8, p < 0.05). Pain perception was associated with the method used for the specific husbandry practices, the farmers' educational level, the farm size, and flock size (p < 0.05). There was a fair to good level of agreement beyond chance (p < 0.05) in the recognition of pain associated with the most painful practices. In general, husbandry practices are not carried out in young animals, use painful methods, without using analgesics, which may have a negative impact on animal welfare.

Effects of Short Transport and Prolonged Fasting in Beef Calves.

Marketing is a stressful process for beef calves, because they are removed from their environment, often weaned just before loading, loaded, transported, and unloaded. It also involves extended periods without food and water and mixing with unfamiliar animals in an unknown environment. Some studies have shown that calves sold through markets are exposed to extended fasting periods even when they undergo only short transportation times. The aim of this controlled study was to determine the consequences for beef calves of a short transportation time followed by a prolonged time without food and water on their tympanic temperature (TT), maximum eye temperature (MET), blood variables related to stress, and live weight. Ten calves were transported for 3 h and then kept in an outdoor pen for 21 h, completing a 24 h fasting period. Sampling took place before loading, after transport and unloading, and then after completing 24 h without food and water. TT, MET, blood glucose, and creatine kinase (CK) increased significantly after transportation. Live weight decreased across sample times (mean of 10 kg per calf after 24 h of fasting), which was consistent with the higher concentration of ß-HB found after fasting. Further studies to measure the actual consequences of true, commercial marketing on calf welfare and productivity are needed.

Main Factors Affecting Animal Welfare and Meat Quality in Lambs for Slaughter in Chile.

Consumers have become increasingly demanding about the quality of products of animal origin, particularly regarding animal welfare during production, transport, and slaughter. The aim of the present study was to review the factors affecting the welfare of lambs for slaughter in Chile and show the implications on meat quality. Rounding up and driving the lambs from the fields in large extensive production systems and long distance transport through difficult geographical routes affect the blood variable indicators of stress and reduces muscle glycogen reserves, increasing the risk of high pH of meat. In small farmer sheep production conditions there is a lack of appropriate installations for loading/unloading and deficiencies in vehicle structure specific for lambs; this together with the work of untrained handlers results in a high percentage of mortality and bruised carcasses, compared to European studies. These problems are common for other South American countries and should be addressed firstly by educating and training all the people involved in the lamb meat chain regarding animal welfare. In Chile there is legislation, ongoing since 2013, regarding the protection of animals during production, transport, and slaughter, including compulsory training of animal handlers and livestock transporters, which should improve animal welfare and meat quality.

Potencial uso de espectroscopia de reflectancia en el infrarrojo cercano (NIRS) para identificación de charqui de bovino, llama y caballo / Potential use of near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) for the identification of beef, llama and horse jerky

Visible and near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (VIS/NIRS) was evaluated as a tool to discrimínate jerky from different species. Spectra were taken by reflectance in a NIRSystems 6500 monochromator and the software NIRS 3.0 and WinIsi II Version 1.02A were used. Twenty samples of jerky corresponding to beef, llama and horses, respectively, were ground, homogenized and analyzed spectrally. The regression equations (PLS) were developed testing different mathematical treatments. The results for jerky show that NIRS can successfully discriminate 100% of llama, 95% of horses and 80% of beef samples, probably as a consequence of differences in intramuscular fat, protein and water contents of the different species. Thus, NIRS is a fast, inexpensive and non-destructive method that can be used to discriminate jerky from these species.

Se usó espectroscopía visible y de reflectancia en el infrarrojo cercano (VIS/NIRS) como herramienta para discriminar charqui de diferentes especies. Los espectros se tomaron por reflectancia en un equipo monocromador NIRSystems modelo 6500, con un software NIRS 3.0, y WinIsi II Versión 1.02 A. Se molieron, homogenizaron y analizaron espectralmente 20 muestras de charqui correspondientes a bovino, llama y caballo. Se desarrollaron ecuaciones de regresión (PLS) probando diferentes tratamientos matemáticos. Los resultados para charqui muestran que NIRS puede discriminar satisfactoriamente 100% de las muestras de llama, 95% de caballos y 80% de bovino, probablemente como consecuencia de diferencias en el contenido de grasa intramuscular, proteína y agua de las diferentes especies. Así, la técnica NIRS muestra ser un método rápido, económico y no destructivo que puede usarse para discriminar charqui de diferentes especies.

Strategies to promote farm animal welfare in Latin America and their effects on carcass and meat quality traits.

Several initiatives, including research and development, increasing stakeholders' awareness and application of legislation and recommendation, have been carried out in Latin America to promote animal welfare and meat quality. Most activities focused on the impact of pre-slaughter conditions (facilities, equipment and handling procedures) on animal welfare and meat quality. The results are encouraging; data from Brazil, Chile and Uruguay showed that the application of the improved pre-slaughter handling practices reduced aggressive handling and the incidence of bruised carcasses at slaughter in cattle and pigs. These outcomes stimulated some to apply animal welfare concepts in livestock handling within the meat production chain as shown by the increasing demand for personnel training on the best. To attend this demand is important to expand local studies on farm animal welfare and to set up (or maintain) an efficient system for knowledge transfer to all stakeholders in the Latin America meat production chains. However, it is clear that to promote the long-term progress in this field is important to deliver practical solutions, assuring that they match the technical and financial conditions of those who are the target of training programs.

Teaching animal welfare in some veterinary schools in Latin America.

Animal welfare is an emerging topic in Latin America because of its impact on animal health, international trade, industry economic viability, and consumer perceptions. To enable veterinarians to be primary promoters of animal welfare, their training must include competencies in ethics, ethology, research, and public policy. During the past 10 years, animal welfare has gradually been incorporated into the curricula of several schools of veterinary medicine in Chile and other Latin American countries. Inclusion in these curricula is limited by a shortage of knowledgeable instructors. Research sustains inclusion of animal welfare in the curricula, but funding for research is often lacking.

Using scientific evidence to inform public policy on the long distance transportation of animals in South America.

A brief overview of the transportation of livestock in South America is given, with emphasis on scientific reports produced in Chile. Aspects such as journey distances covered, stocking densities used and general handling characteristics, mainly regarding cattle transport, are discussed in relation to their effects on blood variables related to stress as well as on meat quality. A lot of the results are being transferred through talks, training courses and written material to producers, transporters and slaughterhouse personnel; this has produced awareness of changes that need to be made to improve transport and handling conditions. At government level, scientific evidence has shown that existing regulations, usually based on information from more developed countries, need to be complemented by or adapted to local conditions in each country.

Medicina Natural y Tradicional. Conocimientos y aplicaciones de enfermería en MINAS-II / Nursing knowledge and applications in MINAS-II

Los procederes de la medicina natural y tradicional tienen generalmente en común el objetivo de prevenir y tratar enfermedades. Así, la intención de mantener la salud como la misma vida y tan inherentes a los seres vivos para utilizar lo bueno y defenderse de lo malo. Por la importancia que reviste el tema se realizó este estudio. El universo de trabajo estuvo constituido por 21 enfermeras a quienes les fueron aplicadas encuestas, las que una vez concluidas se convirtieron en registros primarios de datos. Los resultados fueron procesados en una microcomputadora IMB compatible, en la que se obtuvieron los siguientes datos: predominio del personal técnico y que labora en la comunidad; entre las técnicas más utilizadas figuran los peloides, que son mayormente empleadas en la cefalea; sin embargo, se comprobó que el 61,9 (por ciento) de los encuestados no han pasado cursos de superación, pero aplican la medicina natural, y obtienen buenos resultados. Así, podemos concluir que predominó el nivel técnico que laboró en la comunidad, que conocieron fundamentalmente la técnica de los peloides y aplicaron la medicina natural y tradicional con buenos resultados(AU)

Natural and traditional medicine procedures have the general common objective of preventing and treating diseases. Thus, the purposes of preserving health as well as life are inherent to these methods and to the live people so as to use "the good thing" and defend from "the bad thing". We undertook this study due to the importance of the topic. The universe of study was made up of 21 nurses who were administered surveys. Later these surveys served as primary data records. The results were processed in an IBM-compatible micro-computer and the following data were obtained: predominance of technical nursing staff that works in the community; one of the most used techniques was peloids mainly for treating headaches, and it was confirmed that 61.9 percent of the surveyed nurses had not taken any graduate courses, but they were able to successfully apply natural medicine. Therefore, we may conclude that the technical level of nurses working in the community prevailed; they fundamentally used peloids and applied natural and traditional medicine with good results(AU)

Medicina Natural y Tradicional. Conocimientos y aplicaciones de enfermería en MINAS-II / Nursing knowledge and applications in MINAS-II

Los procederes de la medicina natural y tradicional tienen generalmente en común el objetivo de prevenir y tratar enfermedades. Así, la intención de mantener la salud como la misma vida y tan inherentes a los seres vivos para utilizar ôlo buenoö y defenderse de ôlo maloö. Por la importancia que reviste el tema se realizó este estudio. El universo de trabajo estuvo constituido por 21 enfermeras a quienes les fueron aplicadas encuestas, las que una vez concluidas se convirtieron en registros primarios de datos. Los resultados fueron procesados en una microcomputadora IMB compatible, en la que se obtuvieron los siguientes datos: predominio del personal técnico y que labora en la comunidad; entre las técnicas más utilizadas figuran los peloides, que son mayormente empleadas en la cefalea; sin embargo, se comprobó que el 61,9(por ciento) de los encuestados no han pasado cursos de superación, pero aplican la medicina natural, y obtienen buenos resultados. Así, podemos concluir que predominó el nivel técnico que laboró en la comunidad, que conocieron fundamentalmente la técnica de los peloides y aplicaron la medicina natural y tradicional con buenos resultados(AU)