Gender differences in the effects of childhood maltreatment on adult depression and anxiety: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Child maltreatment has well-documented long-term, adverse effects on mental health, but it is not clear whether there are gender differences in these effects. We conducted a systematic review to investigate whether there are gender differences in the effects of maltreatment on adult depression and anxiety. Medline, PsycINFO, Web of Science, and Lilacs were searched for relevant studies published up to May 2016. Eligible studies included population-based studies (with a cohort, case-control or cross-sectional design) which assessed maltreatment during childhood or adolescence (≤18 years) and its association with major depression or generalized anxiety disorder (DSM/ICD diagnostic criteria) in adulthood (>18 years) separately for females and males. Meta-analysis was performed to estimate the association between each exposure and outcome using fixed and random effects models. Pooled odds ratios (OR) were estimated separately for women and men and compared. Five studies of physical and sexual abuse were included in the meta-analyses. These provided twenty-two effects sizes estimates (11 for men, 11 for women) for associations between physical/sexual abuse and depression/anxiety. Exposure to each kind of abuse increased the odds of depression/anxiety. Associations were larger for women than for men, however, these gender differences were not statistically significant. Physical and sexual abuse in childhood/adolescence are risk factors for depression/anxiety in adulthood and the effect could be larger for women; however, currently there is insufficient evidence to definitively identify gender differences in the effects of maltreatment.

Childhood maltreatment preceding depressive disorder at age 18 years: A prospective Brazilian birth cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Childhood maltreatment is linked with increased risk for mental illness in adolescence and adulthood. However, little evidence is available on whether different forms of maltreatment have specific effects, and no prospective studies in low- or middle-income countries have addressed this issue. METHODS: Participants in a population-based, birth cohort study in Pelotas, Brazil (N=3715) self-reported exposure to maltreatment (emotional abuse, physical neglect, physical abuse, sexual abuse, domestic violence) in confidential questionnaires at age 15 years, and were assessed for major depression in interviews at age 18 years, using the MINI. Confounding variables concerning family characteristics were measured in interviews with mothers in the perinatal period and at age 11 years. RESULTS: Females exposed to emotional abuse (OR=2.7; 95%CI=1.9, 3.8) and domestic violence (OR=1.9; 95%CI=1.2, 2.9) were at increased risk for depression after adjustment for confounders and other types of maltreatment. Females exposed to two or more forms of maltreatment were at particularly high risk for depression (OR=4.1; 95%Cl=2.8, 6.1) compared with females not exposed to maltreatment. In adjusted analyses, maltreatment was not associated with depression for males. LIMITATIONS: Detailed information about maltreatment such as timing and frequency was not available, and 1534 individuals were not included in the analyses, who had poorer and less educated mothers. CONCLUSIONS: Emotional abuse and domestic violence are strong risk factors for major depression for females. Early intervention to prevent maltreatment and its consequences is critical, especially for girls exposed to poly-maltreatment.

Criminal victimization in childhood and adolescence according to official records: the Pelotas (Brazil) birth cohort study. / Vitimização por crime na infância e adolescência segundo registros oficiais: coorte de nascimentos de Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil.

This article describes different types of officially recorded victimization among 5,249 children in the 1993 birth cohort in the city of Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil. Official data were obtained from the Secretariat for Public Security and the Special Court for Children and Youth. Victimization was registered for in 1,150 cohort members, with 1,396 incidents recorded as of December 31, 2012. The total incidence of victimization was 15.7 ocorrences per 1,000 person-years, with the majority involving violent victimization (12.7 per 1,000 person-years). Victimization increased gradually in childhood and rapidly throughout adolescence. The highest incidence rates were among females (p < 0.05), the poor (p < 0.05), children of adolescent mothers (p < 0.001), and children of single mothers (p < 0.05). The most common violent victimization types were physical injuries, robbery, and crimes against personal freedom; non-violent victimization mainly involved theft. Studies like this help identify lifetime risk and protective factors for victimization, highlighting the importance of surveillance and control measures against violence.

Vitimização por crime na infância e adolescência segundo registros oficiais: coorte de nascimentos de Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil / Victimización por delitos durante la infancia y adolescencia según registros oficiales: la cohorte de nacimientos de Pelotas, Río Grande do Sul, Brasil / Criminal victimization in childhood and adolescence according to official records: the Pelotas (Brazil) birth cohort study

Resumo: Descrição dos diferentes tipos de vitimização registrados oficialmente para as 5.249 crianças da coorte de nascimento da cidade de Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Dados oficiais foram obtidos na Secretaria de Segurança Pública e no Juizado da Infância e Juventude. A vitimização ocorreu em 1.150 membros, com 1.396 ocorrências registradas até 31 de dezembro de 2012. A taxa de incidência da vitimização total foi 15,7 por 1.000 pessoas/ano, sendo a maioria por vitimização violenta (12,7 por 1.000 pessoas/ano). A vitimização aumentou gradualmente na infância e rapidamente ao longo da adolescência. As maiores incidências foram entre mulheres (p < 0,05), mais pobres (p < 0,05), com mães adolescentes (p < 0,001) e sem companheiro (p < 0,05). Vitimização violenta mais incidente foi por crimes com lesões corporais, roubo e crimes contra a liberdade individual; a não violenta foi por crimes de furto. Estudos como o presente permitiriam identificar fatores de risco e protetores ao longo da vida do indivíduo, salientando a importância da implementação de medidas de vigilância e controle da violência.

Resumen: Descripción de los diferentes tipos de victimización registradas oficialmente en 5.249 niños de la cohorte de nacimientos de la ciudad de Pelotas, Río Grande do Sul, Brasil. Los datos oficiales fueron obtenidos en la Secretaría de Seguridad Pública y en el Juzgado de la Infancia y Juventud. La victimización se produjo en 1.150 miembros, con 1.396 casos registrados hasta el 31 de diciembre de 2012. La tasa de incidencia de la victimización total fue 15,7 por 1.000 personas-año, siendo la mayoría por victimización violenta (12,7 por 1.000 personas-año). La victimización aumentó gradualmente en la infancia y rápidamente a lo largo de la adolescencia. Las mayores incidencias fueron entre mujeres (p < 0,05), pobres (p < 0,05), con madres adolescentes (p < 0,001) y sin compañero (p < 0,05). La victimización violenta más incidente fue debida a crímenes con lesiones corporales, robo y crímenes contra la libertad individual; la no violenta por delitos de hurto. Estudios como el actual permitirían identificar factores de riesgo y protectores a lo largo de la vida del individuo, resaltando la importancia de la implementación de medidas de vigilancia y control de la violencia.

Abstract: This article describes different types of officially recorded victimization among 5,249 children in the 1993 birth cohort in the city of Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil. Official data were obtained from the Secretariat for Public Security and the Special Court for Children and Youth. Victimization was registered for in 1,150 cohort members, with 1,396 incidents recorded as of December 31, 2012. The total incidence of victimization was 15.7 ocorrences per 1,000 person-years, with the majority involving violent victimization (12.7 per 1,000 person-years). Victimization increased gradually in childhood and rapidly throughout adolescence. The highest incidence rates were among females (p < 0.05), the poor (p < 0.05), children of adolescent mothers (p < 0.001), and children of single mothers (p < 0.05). The most common violent victimization types were physical injuries, robbery, and crimes against personal freedom; non-violent victimization mainly involved theft. Studies like this help identify lifetime risk and protective factors for victimization, highlighting the importance of surveillance and control measures against violence.

Childhood behaviour problems predict crime and violence in late adolescence: Brazilian and British birth cohort studies.

PURPOSE: Most children live in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), many of which have high levels of violence. Research in high-income countries (HICs) shows that childhood behaviour problems are important precursors of crime and violence. Evidence is lacking on whether this is also true in LMICs. This study examines prevalence rates and associations between conduct problems and hyperactivity and crime and violence in Brazil and Britain. METHODS: A comparison was made of birth cohorts in Brazil and Britain, including measures of behaviour problems based on parental report at age 11, and self-reports of crime at age 18 (N = 3,618 Brazil; N = 4,103 Britain). Confounders were measured in the perinatal period and at age 11 in questionnaires completed by the mother and, in Brazil, searches of police records regarding parental crime. RESULTS: Conduct problems, hyperactivity and violent crime were more prevalent in Brazil than in Britain, but nonviolent crime was more prevalent in Britain. Sex differences in prevalence rates were larger where behaviours were less common: larger for conduct problems, hyperactivity, and violent crime in Britain, and larger for nonviolent crime in Brazil. Conduct problems and hyperactivity predicted nonviolent and violent crime similarly in both countries; the effects were partly explained by perinatal health factors and childhood family environments. CONCLUSIONS: Conduct problems and hyperactivity are similar precursors of crime and violence across different social settings. Early crime and violence prevention programmes could target these behavioural difficulties and associated risks in LMICs as well as in HICs.

Epidemiology of childhood conduct problems in Brazil: systematic review and meta-analysis.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to review evidence on the prevalence of and risk factors for conduct problems in Brazil. METHODS: We searched electronic databases and contacted Brazilian researchers up to 05/2012. Studies were included in the review if they reported the prevalence of or risk factors for conduct problems, conduct disorder, or oppositional defiant disorder for 100 + Brazilian children aged ≤18 years, systematically sampled in schools or the community. Prevalence rates and sex differences were meta-analysed. Risk factor studies were reviewed one by one. RESULTS: The average prevalence of conduct problems in screening questionnaires was 20.8%, and the average prevalence of conduct disorder/oppositional defiant disorder was 4.1%. There was systematic variation in the results of screening studies according to methodology: recruitment location, informants, instruments, impairment criterion for case definition, and response rates. Risk factors previously identified in high-income countries were mainly replicated in Brazil, including comorbid mental health problems, educational failure, low religiosity, harsh physical punishment and abuse, parental mental health problems, single parent family, and low socioeconomic status. However, boys did not always have higher risk for conduct problems than girls. CONCLUSIONS: Studies using screening questionnaires suggest that Brazilian children have higher rates of conduct problems than children in other countries, but diagnostic studies do not show this difference. Risk factors in Brazil were similar to those in high-income countries, apart from child sex. Future research should investigate developmental patterns of antisocial behaviour, employ a variety of research designs to identify causal risk mechanisms, and examine a broader range of risk factors.

[Urban work profile among adolescents aged 14-15 years: a population-based study in Southern Brazil]. / Perfil de trabalho urbano de adolescentes de 14-15 anos: um estudo populacional no Sul do Brasil.

The scope of this article was to describe the urban work patterns among 14 to 15-year-old youths from Southern Brazil. Child labor was characterized as any activity that resulted in retribution in the form of goods, services or money. The analyses were stratified by sex and economic level. Of the 4325 adolescents interviewed, the proportion of labor in the last year was 22.2%, namely 27.7% for the male sex, and 17% for the female sex. This proportion was also higher among the poorer strata of the population (30.0%) than the more affluent (14.3%). The majority of adolescents worked away from home and approximately half of them began working before 14 years of age, and around 80.0% reported that they worked by choice. Only 1.0% had a labor contract or work booklet, 30.0% worked more than six hours per day, and the average income was less than US$85/month. Domestic work predominated among the poorest teenagers. There is a need for greater surveillance of child labor and of interventions seeking to enforce prevailing legislation.

Perfil de trabalho urbano de adolescentes de 14-15 anos: um estudo populacional no Sul do Brasil / Urban work profile among adolescents aged 14-15 years: a population-based study in Southern Brazil

The scope of this article was to describe the urban work patterns among 14 to 15-year-old youths from Southern Brazil. Child labor was characterized as any activity that resulted in retribution in the form of goods, services or money. The analyses were stratified by sex and economic level. Of the 4325 adolescents interviewed, the proportion of labor in the last year was 22.2%, namely 27.7% for the male sex, and 17% for the female sex. This proportion was also higher among the poorer strata of the population (30.0%) than the more affluent (14.3%). The majority of adolescents worked away from home and approximately half of them began working before 14 years of age, and around 80.0% reported that they worked by choice. Only 1.0% had a labor contract or work booklet, 30.0% worked more than six hours per day, and the average income was less than US$85/month. Domestic work predominated among the poorest teenagers. There is a need for greater surveillance of child labor and of interventions seeking to enforce prevailing legislation.

O objetivo deste artigo foi descrever os padrões de trabalho urbano em jovens de 14-15 anos do Sul do Brasil. O trabalho infantil foi caracterizado como qualquer atividade que resultasse em retribuição na forma de bens, serviços ou dinheiro. As análises foram estratificadas por sexo e nível econômico. Dos 4325 adolescentes entrevistados, a proporção de trabalho no último ano foi de 22,2%, sendo 27,7% para o sexo masculino e 17,0% para o sexo feminino. Essa proporção também foi maior para as classes D/E (30,0%) do que para as classes A/B (14,3%). A maioria dos adolescentes trabalhava fora de casa, aproximadamente metade começou a trabalhar antes dos 14 anos e cerca de 80,0% referiram trabalhar por interesse próprio. Apenas 1,0% tinha contrato ou carteira de trabalho, 30,0% trabalhavam mais de seis horas por dia, e a renda média foi menor do que R$ 150/mês. Os serviços domésticos predominaram entre os mais pobres. Existe a necessidade de maior monitoramento do trabalho infantil e de intervenções que busquem o cumprimento da legislação vigente.

[Size at birth and mental health problems at 11 years of age in a Brazilian birth cohort]. / Tamanho ao nascer e problemas de saúde mental aos 11 anos em uma coorte brasileira de nascimentos.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between size at birth and mental health problems at 11 years of age in the 1993 Pelotas (Brazil) Birth Cohort Study. Newborns were weighed and measured, and anthropometric indices were calculated. At 11 years of age, mental health problems were assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Prevalence of mental health problems was 32% (95%CI: 31-33). After adjusting for potential confounders, newborns with weight and body mass index (BMI) for age z-scores < -2 SD were at 27% (95%CI: 7-49) and 29% (95%CI: 10-51) greater risk, respectively, of developing mental health problems at age 11 years than those born with normal scores. Newborns with BMI and head circumference for age z-scores > +2 SD were at 34% (95%CI: 6-71) and 19% (95%CI: 1-40) greater risk, respectively, of developing mental health problems than those with normal scores. The results suggest that early factors that are reflected as size measurements at birth can cause mental health problems later in life.

Tamanho ao nascer e problemas de saúde mental aos 11 anos em uma coorte brasileira de nascimentos / Size at birth and mental health problems at 11 years of age in a Brazilian birth cohort

The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between size at birth and mental health problems at 11 years of age in the 1993 Pelotas (Brazil) Birth Cohort Study. Newborns were weighed and measured, and anthropometric indices were calculated. At 11 years of age, mental health problems were assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Prevalence of mental health problems was 32 percent (95 percentCI: 31-33). After adjusting for potential confounders, newborns with weight and body mass index (BMI) for age z-scores < -2 SD were at 27 percent (95 percentCI: 7-49) and 29 percent (95 percentCI: 10-51) greater risk, respectively, of developing mental health problems at age 11 years than those born with normal scores. Newborns with BMI and head circumference for age z-scores > +2 SD were at 34 percent (95 percentCI: 6-71) and 19 percent (95 percentCI: 1-40) greater risk, respectively, of developing mental health problems than those with normal scores. The results suggest that early factors that are reflected as size measurements at birth can cause mental health problems later in life.

O objetivo foi avaliar a associação entre tamanho ao nascer e problemas de saúde mental aos 11 anos na Coorte de Nascimentos de Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil, de 1993. Foram pesados e medidos ao nascer 4.358 recém-nascidos. Avaliou-se problemas de saúde mental com o questionário de capacidades e dificuldades (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire - SDQ). A prevalência de problemas de saúde mental foi de 32 por cento (IC95 por cento: 31-33). Na análise ajustada, os 291 (6,7 por cento) recém-nascidos com escorez de peso/idade e os 268 (6,2 por cento) com índice de massa corporal (IMC)/idade < -2 DP tiveram, respectivamente, 27 por cento (IC95 por cento: 7-49) e 29 por cento (IC95 por cento: 10-51) maior risco de apresentar problemas de saúde mental aos 11 anos quando comparados com aqueles com escore normal. Os 102 (2,43 por cento) recém-nascidos com escorez de IMC e os 279 (6,4 por cento) com perímetro cefálico/idade > +2 DP tiveram, respectivamente, 34 por cento (IC95 por cento: 6-71) e 19 por cento (IC95 por cento: 1-40) maior risco de apresentar esses problemas se comparados com aqueles com escore normal. Os resultados sugerem que fatores ocorridos na gestação e refletidos nas medidas de tamanho ao nascer podem ocasionar problemas de saúde mental em etapas tardias.