Analysis of the bonding in tetrahedrane and phosphorus-substituted tetrahedranes.

The bonding structures of tetrahedrane, phosphatetrahedrane, diphosphatetrahedrane and triphosphatetrahedrane are studied by employing an intrinsic quasi-atomic orbital analysis. Ethane, cyclopropane and tetrahedral P4 are employed as reference systems. The orbital analysis is paired with the computation of strain energies via isodesmic reactions. The results show that the increase in geometric strain upon transition from ethane to cyclopropane to tetrahedrane weakens the CC bonds, despite leading to shorter C-C interatomic distances. With the increase in strain, the orbitals centered on C and involved in the bonding of the cage structure are observed to have elevated p-character, and the orbital structure of C deviates from sp3 hybridization. The systematic substitution of CH groups by P atoms in the cage structure of tetrahedrane leads to stronger CC bonds, larger angles in the cage structures of the resulting phosphatetrahedranes, lower p-character in the orbitals involved in the bonding of the cages, and lower strain energies. It is found that P is more amenable to strained molecular arrangements than is C, and that the propensity of a given atom to hybridize s and p functions, or the lack thereof, has implications in the stability of molecules with strained geometries. The combination of the calculations presented here with the existing literature provides insight into the apparent propensity of tetrahedrane and P4 to 'break' their tetrahedral structures. Trends in the bonding interactions, such as bond strengths, s- and p-orbital characters and charge transfer are identified and related to the strain energy observed in each of the analyzed systems.

The General Atomic and Molecular Electronic Structure System (GAMESS): Novel Methods on Novel Architectures.

The primary focus of GAMESS over the last 5 years has been the development of new high-performance codes that are able to take effective and efficient advantage of the most advanced computer architectures, both CPU and accelerators. These efforts include employing density fitting and fragmentation methods to reduce the high scaling of well-correlated (e.g., coupled-cluster) methods as well as developing novel codes that can take optimal advantage of graphical processing units and other modern accelerators. Because accurate wave functions can be very complex, an important new functionality in GAMESS is the quasi-atomic orbital analysis, an unbiased approach to the understanding of covalent bonds embedded in the wave function. Best practices for the maintenance and distribution of GAMESS are also discussed.

Toward an extreme-scale electronic structure system.

Electronic structure calculations have the potential to predict key matter transformations for applications of strategic technological importance, from drug discovery to material science and catalysis. However, a predictive physicochemical characterization of these processes often requires accurate quantum chemical modeling of complex molecular systems with hundreds to thousands of atoms. Due to the computationally demanding nature of electronic structure calculations and the complexity of modern high-performance computing hardware, quantum chemistry software has historically failed to operate at such large molecular scales with accuracy and speed that are useful in practice. In this paper, novel algorithms and software are presented that enable extreme-scale quantum chemistry capabilities with particular emphasis on exascale calculations. This includes the development and application of the multi-Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) library LibCChem 2.0 as part of the General Atomic and Molecular Electronic Structure System package and of the standalone Extreme-scale Electronic Structure System (EXESS), designed from the ground up for scaling on thousands of GPUs to perform high-performance accurate quantum chemistry calculations at unprecedented speed and molecular scales. Among various results, we report that the EXESS implementation enables Hartree-Fock/cc-pVDZ plus RI-MP2/cc-pVDZ/cc-pVDZ-RIFIT calculations on an ionic liquid system with 623 016 electrons and 146 592 atoms in less than 45 min using 27 600 GPUs on the Summit supercomputer with a 94.6% parallel efficiency.

Quantum Chemical Modeling of Propellant Degradation.

An ab initio quantum chemical approach for the modeling of propellant degradation is presented. Using state-of-the-art bonding analysis techniques and composite methods, a series of potential degradation reactions are devised for a sample hydroxyl-terminated-polybutadiene (HTPB) type solid fuel. By applying thermochemical procedures and isodesmic reactions, accurate thermochemical quantities are obtained using a modified G3 composite method based on the resolution of the identity. The calculated heats of formation for the different structures produced presents an ∼2 kcal/mol average error when compared against experimental values.

A Task-Based Approach to Parallel Restricted Hartree-Fock Calculations.

In recent years, parallelism via multithreading has become extremely important to the optimization of high-performance electronic structure theory codes. Such multithreading is generally achieved via OpenMP constructs, using a fork-join threading model to enable thread-level data parallelism within the code. An alternative approach to multithreading is task-based parallelism, which displays multiple benefits relative to fork-join thread parallelism. A novel Restricted Hartree-Fock (RHF) algorithm, utilizing task-based parallelism to achieve optimal performance, was developed and implemented into the JuliaChem electronic structure theory software package. The new RHF algorithm utilizes a unique method of shell quartet batch creation, enabling construction and distribution of fine-grained shell quartet batches in a load-balanced manner using the Julia task construct. These shell quartet batches are then distributed statically across message-passing interface (MPI) ranks and dynamically across threads within an MPI rank, requiring no explicit inter-rank or interthread synchronization to do so. Compared to the hybrid MPI/OpenMP RHF algorithm present in the GAMESS software package, the task-based algorithm demonstrates speedups of up to ∼40% for systems in the S22(3) test set of molecules, with system sizes up to ∼1000 basis functions. The JuliaChem algorithm demonstrates the viability of both the task-based parallelism model and the Julia programming language for construction of performant electronic structure theory codes targeting systems of a size of chemical interest.

Faster Self-Consistent Field (SCF) Calculations on GPU Clusters.

A novel implementation of the self-consistent field (SCF) procedure specifically designed for high-performance execution on multiple graphics processing units (GPUs) is presented. The algorithm offloads to GPUs the three major computational stages of the SCF, namely, the calculation of one-electron integrals, the calculation and digestion of electron repulsion integrals, and the diagonalization of the Fock matrix, including SCF acceleration via DIIS. Performance results for a variety of test molecules and basis sets show remarkable speedups with respect to the state-of-the-art parallel GAMESS CPU code and relative to other widely used GPU codes for both single and multi-GPU execution. The new code outperforms all existing multi-GPU implementations when using eight V100 GPUs, with speedups relative to Terachem ranging from 1.2× to 3.3× and speedups of up to 28× over QUICK on one GPU and 15× using eight GPUs. Strong scaling calculations show nearly ideal scalability up to 8 GPUs while retaining high parallel efficiency for up to 18 GPUs.

Bonding analysis of water clusters using quasi-atomic orbitals.

The quasi-atomic orbital (QUAO) bonding analysis introduced by Ruedenberg and co-workers is used to develop an understanding of the hydrogen bonds in small water clusters, from the dimer through the hexamer (bag, boat, book, cyclic, prism and cage conformers). Using kinetic bond orders as a metric, it is demonstrated that as the number of waters in simple cyclic clusters increases, the hydrogen bonds strengthen, from the dimer through the cyclic hexamer. However, for the more complex hexamer isomers, the strength of the hydrogen bonds varies, depending on whether the cluster contains double acceptors and/or double donors. The QUAO analysis also reveals the three-center bonding nature of hydrogen bonds in water clusters.

High-Performance, Graphics Processing Unit-Accelerated Fock Build Algorithm.

We present a high-performance, GPU (graphics processing unit)-accelerated algorithm for building the Fock matrix. The algorithm is designed for efficient calculations on large molecular systems and uses a novel dynamic load balancing scheme that maximizes the GPU throughput and avoids thread divergence that could occur due to integral screening. Additionally, the code adopts a novel ERI digestion algorithm that exploits all forms of permutational symmetry, combines efficiently the evaluation of both Coulomb and exchange terms together, and eliminates explicit thread synchronization requirements. Performance results obtained using a number of large molecules reveal remarkable speedups up to 24.4× with respect to the QUICK GPU code and up to 237× with respect to the GAMESS CPU parallel code.

A New Kid on the Block: Application of Julia to Hartree-Fock Calculations.

In the field of electronic structure theory, many optimizations, ranging from accelerator offloading to exploitation of modern programming constructs, have been used to improve the performance of quantum chemistry software. However, one area that has remained largely unexplored is the space of novel programming languages that can provide unique benefits to quantum chemistry software development. One such programming language is Julia, an interpreted language designed to achieve the performance of high-performance, statically compiled languages. To assess the viability of Julia, the restricted Hartree-Fock method was implemented in a new quantum chemistry software package, JuliaChem. JuliaChem is a novel quantum chemistry software designed to take advantage of Julia as much as possible while achieving runtimes comparable to that of more established quantum chemistry software packages. Performance benchmarks against the popular quantum chemistry software package GAMESS, using the S22 test set of molecules, indicate that JuliaChem displays performance that is competitive with that of GAMESS. This shows that Julia could be a potentially useful tool for the field of electronic structure theory.

Novel Computer Architectures and Quantum Chemistry.

Electronic structure theory (especially quantum chemistry) has thrived and has become increasingly relevant to a broad spectrum of scientific endeavors as the sophistication of both computer architectures and software engineering has advanced. This article provides a brief history of advances in both hardware and software, from the early days of IBM mainframes to the current emphasis on accelerators and modern programming practices.

Recent developments in the general atomic and molecular electronic structure system.

A discussion of many of the recently implemented features of GAMESS (General Atomic and Molecular Electronic Structure System) and LibCChem (the C++ CPU/GPU library associated with GAMESS) is presented. These features include fragmentation methods such as the fragment molecular orbital, effective fragment potential and effective fragment molecular orbital methods, hybrid MPI/OpenMP approaches to Hartree-Fock, and resolution of the identity second order perturbation theory. Many new coupled cluster theory methods have been implemented in GAMESS, as have multiple levels of density functional/tight binding theory. The role of accelerators, especially graphical processing units, is discussed in the context of the new features of LibCChem, as it is the associated problem of power consumption as the power of computers increases dramatically. The process by which a complex program suite such as GAMESS is maintained and developed is considered. Future developments are briefly summarized.