Predictors of adaptive functioning in preschool aged children with autism spectrum disorder.

Difficulties in adaptive functioning are common in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and contribute to negative outcomes across the lifespan. Research indicates that cognitive ability is related to degree of adaptive functioning impairments, particularly in young children with ASD. However, the extent to which other factors, such as socioeconomic status (SES) and ASD symptom severity, predict impairments in adaptive functioning remains unclear. The goal of this study was to determine the extent to which SES, ASD symptom severity, and cognitive ability contribute to variability in domain-specific and global components of adaptive functioning in preschool-aged children with ASD. Participants were 99 preschool-aged children (2-6 years) with ASD who attended a tertiary diagnostic service. Results demonstrate that cognitive ability accounted for a significant proportion of variance in domain-specific and global components of adaptive functioning, with higher cognitive ability predicting better adaptive functioning. Results also demonstrate that SES accounted for some variability in domain-specific communication skills and global adaptive functioning when compared to basic demographic factors alone (age and gender). By contrast, ASD symptom severity did not predict variability in domain-specific or global components of adaptive functioning. These findings provide support for a relationship between cognitive ability and adaptive functioning in preschool-aged children with ASD and help to explain specific contributions of verbal and nonverbal ability to adaptive functioning; from this, we can better understand which children are likely to show the greatest degree of impairments across components of adaptive functioning early in development. LAY SUMMARY: People with autism often have difficulties with everyday communication, daily living, and social skills, which are also called adaptive functioning skills. This study investigated factors that might be related to these difficulties in preschoolers with autism. We found that better cognitive ability, but not autism symptoms, were associated with better adaptive functioning. This suggests that interventions for young children with autism should take into account cognitive ability to better understand which children are likely to have difficulties with adaptive functioning.

The Acceptability and Efficacy of Electronic Data Collection in a Hospital Neurodevelopmental Clinic: Pilot Questionnaire Study.

BACKGROUND: There is a growing need for cost-efficient and patient-centered approaches to support families in hospital- and community-based neurodevelopmental services. For such purposes, electronic data collection (EDC) may hold advantages over paper-based data collection. Such EDC approaches enable automated data collection for scoring and interpretation, saving time for clinicians and services and promoting more efficient service delivery. OBJECTIVE: This pilot study evaluated the efficacy of EDC for the Child Development Unit, a hospital-based diagnostic assessment clinic in the Sydney Children's Hospital Network. Caregiver response rates and preference for EDC or paper-based methods were evaluated as well as the moderating role of demographic characteristics such as age, level of education, and ethnic background. METHODS: Families were sent either a paper-based questionnaire via post or an electronic mail link for completion before attending their first on-site clinic appointment for assessment. A total of 62 families were provided a paper version of the questionnaire, while 184 families were provided the online version of the same questionnaire. RESULTS: Completion rates of the questionnaire before the first appointment were significantly higher for EDC (164/184, 89.1%) in comparison to paper-based methods (24/62, 39%; P<.001). Within the EDC group, a vast majority of respondents indicated a preference for completing the questionnaire online (151/173, 87.3%), compared to paper completion (22/173, 12.7%; P<.001). Of the caregiver demographic characteristics, only the respondent's level of education was associated with modality preference, such that those with a higher level of education reported a greater preference for EDC (P=.04). CONCLUSIONS: These results show that EDC is feasible in hospital-based clinics and has the potential to offer substantial benefits in terms of centralized data collation, time and cost savings, efficiency of service, and resource allocation. The results of this study therefore support the continued use of electronic methods to improve family-centered care in clinical practices.

Agreement between telehealth and face-to-face assessment of intellectual ability in children with specific learning disorder.

INTRODUCTION: Access to cognitive assessments for children living remotely is limited. Telehealth represents a potential cost- and time-effective solution. A pilot study was conducted to determine the feasibility of telehealth to assess cognitive function in children with learning difficulties. METHODS: Thirty-three children (median age = 9 years 11 months), recruited from the New South Wales (NSW) Centre for Effective Reading, underwent assessment of intellectual ability. Comparisons were made between the intellectual ability index scores obtained by a psychologist sitting face-to-face with the children and another psychologist via telehealth using a web-based platform, Coviu. RESULTS: The telehealth administration method yielded comparable results to the face-to-face method. Correlation analyses showed high associations between the testing methodologies on the intellectual ability indices (correlation coefficient range = 0.981-0.997). DISCUSSION: Findings indicate that telehealth may be an alternative to face-to-face cognitive assessment. Future work in a broader range of cognitive tests and wider range of clinical populations is warranted.

Executive functions and social competence in young children 6 months following traumatic brain injury.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the impact of traumatic brain injury (TBI) in young children on executive functions and social competence, and particularly on the role of executive functions as a predictor of social competence. METHOD: Data were drawn from a prospective, longitudinal study. Participants were children between the ages of 3 years 0 months and 6 years 11 months at time of injury. The initial sample included 23 with severe TBI, 64 with moderate TBI, and 119 with orthopedic injuries (OI). All participants were assessed at 3 and 6 months postinjury. Executive functions were assessed using neuropsychological tests (Delayed Alternation task and Shape School) and parent ratings on the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function and Child Behavior Questionnaire. Parents rated children's social competence on the Adaptive Behavior Assessment System, Preschool and Kindergarten Behavior Scales, and Home and Community Social Behavior Scales. RESULTS: Children with severe TBI displayed more negative outcomes than children with OI on neuropsychological tests, ratings of executive functions, and ratings of social competence (η² ranged from .03 to .11). Neuropsychological tests of executive functions had significant but weak relationships with behavioral ratings of executive functions (ΔR² ranged from .06 to .08). Behavioral ratings of executive functions were strongly related to social competence (ΔR² ranged from .32 to .42), although shared rater and method variance likely contributed to these associations. CONCLUSIONS: Severe TBI in young children negatively impacts executive functions and social competence. Executive functions may be an important determinant of social competence following TBI.

Apolipoprotein E4 as a predictor of outcomes in pediatric mild traumatic brain injury.

The epsilon4 allele of the apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene has been linked to negative outcomes among adults with traumatic brain injury (TBI) across the spectrum of severity, with preliminary evidence suggesting a similar pattern among children. This study investigated the relationship of the APOE epsilon4 allele to outcomes in children with mild TBI. Participants in this prospective, longitudinal study included 99 children with mild TBI between the ages of 8 and 15 recruited from consecutive admissions to Emergency Departments at two large children's hospitals. Outcomes were assessed acutely in the Emergency Department and at follow-ups at 2 weeks, 3 months, and 12 months post-injury. Among the 99 participants, 28 had at least one epsilon4 allele. Children with and without an epsilon4 allele did not differ demographically. Children with an epsilon4 allele were significantly more likely than those without an epsilon4 allele to have a Glasgow Coma Scale score of less than 15, but the groups did not differ on any other measures of injury severity. Those with an epsilon4 allele exhibited better performance than children without an epsilon4 allele on a test of constructional skill, but the groups did not differ on any other neuropsychological tests. Children with and without an epsilon4 allele also did not differ on measures of post-concussive symptoms. Overall, the findings suggest that the APOE epsilon4 allele is not consistently related to the outcomes of mild TBI in children.

Family burden and parental distress following mild traumatic brain injury in children and its relationship to post-concussive symptoms.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationship of mild traumatic brain injuries (TBI) and post-concussive symptoms (PCS) to post injury family burden and parental distress, using data from a prospective, longitudinal study. METHODS: Participants included 71 children with mild TBI with loss of consciousness (LOC), 110 with mild TBI without LOC, and 97 controls with orthopedic injuries not involving the head (OI), and their parents. Shortly after injury, parents and children completed a PCS interview and questionnaire, and parents rated premorbid family functioning. Parents also rated family burden and parental distress shortly after injury and at 3 months post injury. RESULTS: Mild TBI with LOC was associated with greater family burden at 3 months than OI, independent of socioeconomic status and premorbid family functioning. Higher PCS shortly after injury was related to higher ratings of family burden and distress at 3 months. CONCLUSIONS: Mild TBI are associated with family burden and distress more than mild injuries not involving the head, although PCS may influence post injury family burden and distress more than the injury per se. Clinical implications of the current findings are noted in the Discussion section.

Self-regulation as a mediator of the effects of childhood traumatic brain injury on social and behavioral functioning.

This study builds on our earlier investigation (see Ganesalingam et al., 2006). We showed previously that children with moderate to severe traumatic brain injuries (TBI) had poorer self-regulation and social and behavioral functioning than their uninjured peers and that self-regulation predicted significant variance in parent- and teacher-rated social and behavioral outcomes, regardless of the presence or absence of TBI. In this study, we examine self-regulation as a mediator of the relationship between TBI and the outcomes. Participants included 65 children with moderate to severe TBI and 65 children without TBI matched for age and gender. Participants were between 6 and 11 years of age. Children completed an assessment of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral self-regulation, and social and behavioral functioning. Mediation was assessed using a bootstrapping approach (a relatively novel statistical method for assessing specific indirect effects in models with multiple mediators). Analyses indicated that, after controlling for socioeconomic status (SES), aspects of self-regulation accounted for individual variation in the outcomes, and acted as a significant mediator of the effects of TBI on the outcomes. Self-regulatory deficits may reflect the relative vulnerability of the prefrontal cortex to TBI and may help account for post-injury difficulties in social and behavioral functioning.

Social problem-solving skills following childhood traumatic brain injury and its association with self-regulation and social and behavioural functioning.

This study examines social problem-solving skills following childhood traumatic brain injury (TBI) and its association with self-regulation, and social and behavioural functioning. Participants included 65 children with moderate to severe TBI and 65 children without TBI, all between 6 and II years of age. Social problem-solving, self-regulation, and social and behavioural functioning were assessed 2-5 years following injury. Children were administered a newly developed semi-structured task to assess their solutions to hypothetical situations involving social problems or dilemmas. When compared with uninjured children, those with TBI suggested avoidant and aggressive solutions more often and assertive solutions less often in response to the hypothetical situations. Children's self-regulatory skills, as measured by the Matching Familiar Figures Test (MFFT), Test of Everyday Attention for Children (TEA-Ch) and the Delay of Gratification Task (DGT), collectively accounted for significant variance in their solutions to social problems, such that better self-regulation predicted more assertive solutions and fewer aggressive solutions. Assertive solutions were positively related to parent- and teacher-rated social and behavioural outcomes, whereas aggressive solutions were negatively related to the outcomes. The difficulties in social problem-solving skills demonstrated by children with TBI may help account for their poor social and behavioural functioning.

Self-regulation and social and behavioral functioning following childhood traumatic brain injury.

This study examined the impact of childhood traumatic brain injury (TBI) on self-regulation and social and behavioral functioning, and the role of self-regulation as a predictor of children's social and behavioral functioning. Participants included 65 children with moderate to severe TBI and 65 children without TBI, all between 6 and 11 years of age. Self-regulation and social and behavioral functioning were assessed 2 to 5 years following injury. Children with TBI displayed deficits in self-regulation and social and behavioral functioning, after controlling for socioeconomic status (SES), although the magnitude of the deficits was not related to injury severity. Self-regulation accounted for significant variance in children's social and behavioral functioning, after controlling for SES and group membership. Self-regulation may be an important determinant of children's social and behavioral functioning following TBI.