Mapping environmental crime to characterize human impacts on islands: an applied and methodological research in Canary Islands.

Environmental crimes are a global issue due to the damage they cause to landscapes and ecosystems. This study focused on characterizing environmental crimes in the Canary Islands (Spain). Four categories of environmental crimes related to construction, mining and tilling, solid waste, and liquid waste) were defined and analysed. A total of 28 databases were generated, corresponding to each of the 7 major islands and each environmental crime typology. Each database was linked to information on land use and the socioeconomic and physical characteristics of the territory. For each database, firstly a descriptive statistical analysis was conducted, followed by the generation of a regularized Random Forest model with the aim of identifying characteristics that may be related to the location of environmental crimes. The results showed that, in most cases, proximity to residential accommodations, agricultural areas and industrial zones act as the main explanatory features of the distribution of environmental crimes. Furthermore, a marked pattern of concentration of environmental crimes in the coastal belt of the islands was observed, mainly associated with urban-tourist development since the 1960s and 1970s.

Effects of stone-made wind shelter structures over an arid nebkha foredune.

Beach users often use a range of strategies to shelter from the wind and blown sand. This involves building structures made of stacking stones. Different from other portable wind blockers, stone-made wind shelters can remain in the landscape for a long time. The process of stone removal from their original place and stone-stacking at another location has well-known effects on rock-dwelling wildlife. Less known are the impacts of stone wind shelters on biogeomorphological processes of beach-dune systems, especially those in arid coastlines, where foredunes formed by nebkhas are naturally discontinuous. This is the case of Playa del Inglés beach (Gran Canaria, Spain), the main sediment input to the Maspalomas dunefield, where the presence of stone wind shelters (goros) made by users has increased in recent decades following an increase of visitors. This research aims to investigate the effects of stone wind shelters on the dynamics of an arid beach-dune system at various spatiotemporal scales. The methodology includes the use of aerial photography to study the appearance and evolution of stone shelters in Playa del Inglés and some of their long-term effects on the foredune. Field data was also collected to investigate the effects that stone shelters have over a representative foredune nebkha in detail, by monitoring the changes (topography, airflow, and vegetation) of an individual landform as we progressively remove pebbles from a previously built stone shelter. Results show that stone stacking has an impact on airflow and sediment transport dynamics around landforms, limiting sediment accumulation inside nebkhas and therefore arid foredune growth. Stone stacking also constrict vegetation growth and its ability to retain sediment. The impacts of these artificial structures can be reverted following their removal but that the process of dismantling stones must be carefully planned. We elaborate some recommendations here to do it avoid damaging foredune vegetation.

Can the long-term effects of beach cleaning heavy duty machinery on aeolian sedimentary dynamics be detected by monitoring of vehicle tracks? An applied and methodological approach.

Beach-dune systems are fragile ecosystems vulnerable to changes, especially those associated to human activities. This study focuses on El Inglés beach (Canary Islands, Spain), which is located on the eastern limit of the Maspalomas dunefield. This is the sediment input to the dunefield, and vehicles that provide urban-touristic services circulate every day, most notably heavy duty machinery responsible for beach cleaning. The aim of this study is to make a first methodological approach and a quantitative and empirical analysis of the long-term environmental effects, especially on the topography and geomorphology, that mechanical beach cleaning services could have on the aeolian dynamics, using as an indicator the vehicles tracks mapping. The methodology is divided into four sections: i) a spatiotemporal study of vehicle tracks on the beach; ii) a field campaign to observe beach cleaning activities in situ and compile data; iii) an interview with the local team responsible for beach cleaning; and iv) a general analysis of the aeolian dynamics over the almost last two decades. Results shown not only a high correlation between vehicle tracks and heavy duty machinery tracks, but also the variation in vehicle track density was proven to follow changes in the management process and the number of tourists. Different track densities varied depending on the intensity of the presence of visitors and hence the intensity of beach use, which is not homogeneous throughout the beach. A study of the deflation surfaces as erosion process found that they not only remain steady but even increase in some areas with high vehicle track densities, with no sedimentary gain. Although management activities like cleaning and levelling may not have a direct impact on the dunefield, they were positively correlated to deflation surfaces, increasing sediment loss in the beach area. These activities could be leading an artificially-maintained steady beach contrary to documented sedimentary loss in the dunefield. In conclusion, the pioneer approach of analysing the vehicle traffic through tracks monitoring, especially beach cleaning activities, has shown the viability to detect long-term effects on the sedimentary dynamics, including sediment loss to the foredune and, therefore, inside the system.

Deforestation by historical lime industry in an arid aeolian sedimentary system: An applied and methodological research.

Traditional land uses have been altering aeolian sedimentary systems for centuries through the removal of plant material for grazing, fuel or farming purposes. However, few studies have been able to quantify the deforestation process associated with these land uses due to the complexity that this entails and the limitations of the historical sources. In this context, the aim of this work is to develop a methodology that allows to reconstruct, evaluate, measure and locate the effects of deforestation processes. The methodology, based on the interpretation of historical documents, oral interviews and publications in the literature; was applied to a case study in Jandía (Fuerteventura, Canary Islands, Spain). On the basis of morphological measurements of the types of plant used to fire lime kilns, the current available biovolume was determined and an estimation made of the surface area affected by plant removal. The data obtained were integrated and analysed through a geographic information system (GIS) in order to quantify the impact of the lime kiln industry on the vegetation in the study area. The main results show that to fire a large-sized lime kiln oven it would be necessary to clear a low-density vegetation area of 21,826.08 m2 (or a a high-density vegetation area of 3075.72 m2) using three main species (Launaea arborescens, Lycium intricatum and Convolvulus caput-madusae). It was also found that distances of up to 38 km had to be travelled to obtain the vegetation required to fire the kilns. It is concluded that a number of impacts resulted from the demands of the limestone industry, particularly on plant communities, the abundance of certain species and flora richness, as well as modifications to geomorphological processes and the eventual collapse of the activity in the 1960s through overexploitation of the plant material. The present research allows us to learn from past experiences in which industries lacked proper planning and thus their activity led to their own collapse and rapid environmental degradation.

TEMPORARY REMOVAL: Sand, Sun, Sea and Sex with Strangers, the "five S's". Characterizing "cruising" activity and its environmental impacts on a protected coastal dunefield.

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Spatiotemporal analysis of the impact of artificial beach structures on biogeomorphological processes in an arid beach-dune system.

The research hypothesis considered in this study is that decisions adopted on beach use and management in arid environments can result in significant changes in the biogeomorphological processes of the beach-dune system of which it forms part. Different information sources and geographical information systems were used to make a spatiotemporal analysis of possible correlations between the presence of beach equipment, services and uses in the backshore area of an arid beach-dune system, such as the beach named Playa del Inglés (Gran Canaria island, Spain) and environmental changes detected in the same area. The period considered in the study covers from 1961 (before the development of the mass tourism on the island) to 2018. Significant variations in vegetation cover over the course of the study period were detected, as well as an overall increase in erosion (topographic and erosive aeolian landforms) and foredune fragmentation and a decrease in geomorphological resilience. The study found not only relationships between management decisions and environmental impacts, but also that environmental impacts of management decisions on beach use made in the 1970s and 1980s continue to be felt today. Moreover, the results also reinforce the idea that management decisions made based on the results of scientific research studies (management-research binomial) can lead to more environmentally sustainable actions.

Decadal monitoring of Traganum moquinii's role on foredune morphology of an human impacted arid dunefield.

Foredunes in arid zones have been little studied, being significantly different than tropical and temperate foredunes. In the case of the foredune of the arid Canary Islands' dune systems, Traganum moquinii is the predominant plant species, forms nebkhas and nebkhas fields, and acts as a structuring element in the dune field. In this work, the eco-anthropogenic evolution of the foredune surface, and the morphology and distribution of Traganum moquinii species in the Maspalomas dunefield (Gran Canaria, Canary Islands) are analysed, to understand the role that this plant species plays on the foredune's geomorphology and on the biogeomorphological processes altered by human actions. Eight variables were measured in 10 plots at five different times, from the 1960's to the present, through historical aerial photographs and orthophotos, integrated in a GIS. Significant decadal changes in the number and distribution/morphology of Traganum moquinii plants and also in the morphology of the foredune are observed, although not in a spatially homogeneous manner, as three different foredune behaviors are observed. The number of nebkhas/number of T. moquinii plants, has decreased between 1961 and 2012. The largest changes occurred in the north and south of the study area, and the lowest numbers of nebkhas occur where tourist activities and services are intense. In addition, the distance between Traganum moquinii individuals and variables measured in the foredune front (e.g. the diameter of the individuals) have significant relationships. Also, the greater the distance between plant individuals in the foredune front, the greater is the distance of T. moquinii individual plants in the rest of the plot. The alongshore variations in foredune development are due to natural processes (e.g. natural decline or growth of plants), and human impacts (e.g. carpark and kiosk construction, heavy tourist use). This research could be useful for the management of foredunes in arid regions.

An historical ecological assessment of land-use evolution and observed landscape change in an arid aeolian sedimentary system.

Coastal areas worldwide are undergoing major changes and degradation due to a set of combined natural and anthropogenic stressors. In arid aeolian sedimentary systems these changes can be even more acute given their sensitivity to perturbances in landscape dynamics. While in many such areas recent (20 year) observations have been made regarding measurable differences in dune coverage and stability, few studies have assessed and quantified the long-term relationships of transitioning exploitation and land-use changes in order to fully evaluate their importance. Land management, therefore, does not always benefit from the more holistic picture that a combined deeper time historical ecology and geographical approach provides and can contribute to decision making. The Jandía isthmus, in Fuerteventura (Canary Islands, Spain) presented an ideal field laboratory in which to assess these phenomena in actual conditions and test a combined methodology using historical and current sources (historical documents, aerial photographs, orthophotos, LiDAR data, field work and oral sources). By doing so, different phases of land exploitation associated with changing land ownership were identified and the consequences of each on the dune system assessed. It is concluded that the transition from traditional land uses (livestock and fuel extraction) to more recent ones (aggregate extraction, construction of new roads and urban-touristic resorts, and some recreational uses) has altered aeolian sedimentary transport, inducing stabilization of the landforms, as well as producing significant changes in the vegetation. The wider application of this type of study can benefit the many other areas worldwide that are facing similar pressures.

Climate as a control on foredune mode in Southern Australia.

Foredunes are formed by aeolian sand deposition in vegetation on the backshore of beaches. In this paper, the foredune mode (nebkha, discontinuous foredune, and continuous foredune), and transgressive dunefield development is studied along the Great Australian Bight (GAB), 2668 km of coastline. Orthophotos are used to classify the foredune mode, coastal landforms and the vegetation, through geographic information systems (GIS), with fieldwork support. The results show that the foredune mode is strongly controlled by rainfall and temperature with respect to latitude, and to drift potential with respect to longitude across the GAB. Between 200 and 300 mm annual rainfall, nebkha predominate. When the annual rainfall is between 300 and 400, at latitude 32°, a clear pattern is not observed in foredune mode and this is identified as a transition zone. Discontinuous foredunes and continuous foredunes are strongly represented in regions experiencing above 400 mm annual rainfall. The main contribution of this study is the identification of foredune modes which are not only related to a climatic gradient and latitude, but also related to variations in longitude, vegetation cover and diversity, and dune mobility indices. Finally, there are other environmental relationships between the wind and longitude, where the geomorphology of the bay could be playing an important role.

Beach vegetation as an indicator of human impacts in arid environments: Environmental conditions and landscape perception in the Canary Islands.

Human occupancy of beaches is an important cause of environmental and landscape transformations, some of which are identifiable through vegetation analysis. Commonly, arboreal vegetation has been socially perceived in a positive way, as it contributes to the creation of environments appreciated as beautiful and natural. This type of vegetation has been recreated in urban coastal areas worldwide, including those located in arid environments where it is not always common or endemic to these areas. The typology of plant species, human impacts on beach environments, and the social perception of vegetation contrast were analyzed to understand the landscape influence and human impact on beach environments from arid regions. The study was carried out on 12 beaches with different degrees of human occupation (4 urban, 4 semi-urban and 4 natural) in Gran Canaria island (Spain). The results indicate that the number of exotic and ruderal (first to colonize human disturbed environments) species increases with human occupation of the beaches. A greater number of arboreal species were identified on urban beaches, while shrub and herbaceous species were more common on less occupied beaches (semi-urban and natural). However, when surveyed, the users of semi-urban and natural beaches, considered that arboreal vegetation compose a more attractive landscape than other with herbs or shrubs, even though tree species appear occasionally on these types of beaches. This inconsistency identifies a conflict of values between the development and conservation of beaches in arid environments. This study can be used to establish environmental sustainability strategies on beaches. Conservation and environmental information about ecosystem services related with indigenous plant species is and important issue for integrated management on beaches from arid regions, especially those that may be urbanized in the near future.

Biogeomorphological processes in an arid transgressive dunefield as indicators of human impact by urbanization.

Urban and tourist developments can have long-lasting impacts on coastal environments and fundamentally alter the evolution of coastal dune systems. This is the case of the Maspalomas dunefield (Gran Canaria, Canary Islands), hosting one of the largest tourist resorts in Spain. The resort was built on top of a sedimentary terrace at 25 m above sea level (El Inglés) in the 1960s, and has subsequently affected local winds and therefore aeolian sediment transport patterns. Buildings on the terrace deflect the winds to the south of the dunefield, where the rate of sediment transport accelerated. A shadow zone appeared to the lee side of the resort with a consequent decrease in wind speed and aeolian sediment transport and an increase in vegetation cover. In this paper, first we characterize the environmental changes around El Inglés terrace in recent decades, and describe the changes in the shadow zone through an analysis of the evolution of sedimentary volumes and vegetation characteristics (density, spatial patterns, and plants communities). A series of historical aerial photographs, recent orthophotos and digital elevation models obtained by digital photogrammetry and LiDAR, as well as fieldwork were used to characterize plant communities and spatial-temporal changes in erosive landforms. Results show changes in the pattern and migration rates of dunes located at the southern edge of the urbanization, as well as the formation of blowouts and large deflation areas, where the vegetation increases in density and number of plant communities. We discuss eco-anthropogenic factors that have produced these environmental changes.