Prevalence and molecular epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infection in Indonesia.

Clostridium difficile has not been studied in detail in Asia, particularly Southeast Asia. We thus performed a prevalence study across four hospitals in Central Java province, Indonesia. Stool samples were collected from patients with diarrhoea and tested by enzyme immunoassay for glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) and toxin A/B (C DIFF QUIK CHEK COMPLETE, TechLab). Specimens were cultured and molecular typing was performed. In total, 340 samples were tested, of which 70 (20.6%) were GDH positive, with toxin detected in 19 (5.6%). Toxigenic C. difficile was isolated from 37 specimens (10.9%), while a further 36 (10.6%) nontoxigenic isolates were identified. The most common strain was ribotype 017 (24.3% of 74 isolates), followed by nontoxigenic types QX 224 (9.5%), and QX 238 and QX 108 (both 8.1%). The high prevalence of C. difficile highlights a need for ongoing surveillance of C. difficile infection in Indonesia.

Coagulation disorders in patients with severe leptospirosis are associated with severe bleeding and mortality.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the involvement of coagulation in bleeding and poor outcome in patients with severe leptospirosis. METHODS: In a prospective study, parameters of the coagulation system were measured on admission and during follow-up in 52 consecutive patients with severe leptospirosis. RESULTS: All patients showed coagulation disorders, such as prolonged prothrombin time (PT) and activated partial thromboplastin time, marked procoagulant activity [thrombin-antithrombin (TAT) complexes, prothrombin fragment 1+2, D-dimer], reduced levels of anticoagulant markers (protein C, antithrombin) and increased (anti-) fibrinolytic activity [plasmin-antiplasmin (PAP) complexes, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1]. These disorders were more pronounced in patients who died eventually. PT prolongation was associated with mortality (OR 1.4, 95% CI: 1.0-1.8, P = 0.04). Bleeding occurred in 31 subjects (60%). Of these, 24 had mild bleeding and seven had severe haemorrhages. Thrombocytopenia (platelets

What role do coagulation disorders play in the pathogenesis of leptospirosis?

Leptospirosis is a zoonosis of worldwide distribution, spread by the urine of infected animals. It is a major public health problem, especially in developing countries, where circumstances for transmission are most favourable. The clinical picture varies from mild disease to a severe illness with haemostatic derangements and multiorgan failure eventually leading to death. Although the haemorrhagic complications of severe disease are serious, the pathophysiology is scarcely elucidated. The complex mechanisms involved in inflammation-induced coagulation activation are extensively studied in various infectious diseases, i.e. Gram-negative sepsis. Tissue factor-mediated coagulation activation, impairment of anticoagulant and fibrinolytic pathways in close concert with the cytokine network are thought to be important. But for human leptospirosis, data are limited. Because of the growing interest in this field, the impact of leptospirosis, and the availability of new therapeutic strategies, we reviewed the evidence regarding the role of coagulation in leptospirosis and provide suggestions for future research.

HLA-DRB1*12 is associated with protection against complicated typhoid fever, independent of tumour necrosis factor alpha.

We investigated whether HLA-DR2 or -DR12 alleles in 63 Javanese patients with complicated or non-complicated typhoid fever were associated with severity of disease. No association was observed between HLA type and susceptibility to disease. However, in patients we did find a negative association of DR12 (DRB1*12021) with complicated typhoid fever (P = 0.05; OR = 0.3; 95% CI: 0.1-1.0). No effect of DR2 (DRB1*1502) on outcome (P = 0.46; OR = 1.5; 95% CI: 0.5-4.5) was demonstrated. The odds ratio for DR12 remained unchanged after adjusting for DR2. Tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) production capacity in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated whole blood culture, as measured by non-equilibrium radioimmunoassay, was significantly lower in complicated than in non-complicated cases (P = 0.02), confirming previous data. No significant correlation of either DR12 (P = 0.47) or DR2 (P = 0.89) was found with TNF-alpha production capacity. Apparently, protection against complications by DR12 is attributable to other mechanisms.

Poor food hygiene and housing as risk factors for typhoid fever in Semarang, Indonesia.

To identify risk factors for typhoid fever in Semarang city and its surroundings, 75 culture-proven typhoid fever patients discharged 2 weeks earlier from hospital and 75 controls were studied. Control subjects were neighbours of cases with no history of typhoid fever, not family members, randomly selected and matched for gender and age. Both cases and controls were interviewed at home by the same trained interviewer using a standardized questionnaire. A structured observation of their living environment inside and outside the house was performed during the visit and home drinking water samples were tested bacteriologically. Univariate analysis showed the following risk factors for typhoid fever: never or rarely washing hands before eating (OR = 3.28; 95% CI = 1.41-7.65); eating outdoors at least once a week (OR = 3.00; 95% CI = 1.09-8.25); eating outdoors at a street food stall or mobile food vendor (OR = 3.86; 95% CI = 1.30-11.48); consuming ice cubes in beverage in the 2-week period before getting ill (OR = 3.00, 95% CI = 1.09-8.25) and buying ice cubes from a street vendor (OR = 5.82; 95% CI = 1.69-20.12). Water quality and living environment of cases were worse than that of controls, e.g. cases less often used clean water for taking a bath (OR = 6.50; 95% CI = 1.47-28.80), for brushing teeth (OR = 4.33; 95% CI = 1.25-15.20) and for drinking (OR = 3.67; 95% CI = 1.02-13.14). Cases tended to live in houses without water supply from the municipal network (OR=11.00; 95% CI = 1.42-85.2), with open sewers (OR = 2.80; 95% CI = 1.0-7.77) and without tiles in the kitchen (OR = 2.67; 95% CI = 1.04-6.81). Multivariate analysis showed that living in a house without water supply from the municipal network (OR = 29.18; 95% CI = 2.12-400.8) and with open sewers (OR = 7.19; 95% CI = 1.33-38.82) was associated with typhoid fever. Never or rarely washing hands before eating (OR = 3.97; 95% CI = 1.22-12.93) and being unemployed or having a part-time job (OR = 31.3; 95% CI = 3.08-317.4) also were risk factors. In this population typhoid fever was associated with poor housing and inadequate food and personal hygiene.

Latex based, rapid and easy assay for human leptospirosis in a single test format.

Leptospirosis is an often severe disease which requires prompt treatment. Laboratory testing is required to reach a valid diagnosis. An agglutination assay for the detection of Leptospira-specific antibodies consisting of individually wrapped agglutination cards containing a stable, dried detection reagent is evaluated. The assay is simply performed by suspending the dried reagent with a drop of serum. The result is obtained within 30 s. The sensitivity of the assay varied with the stage of the disease and was 72.3% for samples collected during the first 10 days of the illness and 88.2% for samples collected at a later stage. The specificity was 93.9% and 89.8%, respectively. These characteristics make the test ideal for use in areas where the disease is common and where laboratory support is not routinely available.

Lateral-flow assay for rapid serodiagnosis of human leptospirosis.

An assay device for the rapid detection of Leptospira-specific immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibodies in human sera is presented. The sensitivity (85.8%) and specificity (93.6%) of the assay compared well (91.9% agreement) with those of an IgM enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay routinely used in the serodiagnosis of leptospirosis. The sensitivity of the assay varied with the stage of the disease. The assay uses stabilized components and is simply performed by the addition of serum and sample fluid to the sample well of the assay device. The assay is read after 10 min, and a positive result is obtained when staining of the test line is observed.

Outcome in three groups of patients with typhoid fever in Indonesia between 1948 and 1990.

The outcome in three groups of patients with bacteriologically confirmed typhoid fever caused by Salmonella typhi, treated during three episodes between 1948 and 1990 in Java, Indonesia, was compared by retrospective analysis of hospital records. The study population consisted of three groups of patients. Group I (n = 50) was treated in Batavia (the present Jakarta) from 1948 to 1950, Group II (n = 61) in Yogyakarta from 1952 to 1956, Group III (n = 105) in Semarang from 1989 to 1990. Main outcome measures were days until defervescence, early relapses during hospitalization, duration of hospital stay, complications and mortality. Group I received supportive treatment only, Group II low doses of chloramphenicol (total 12.5 g) and Group III full doses of chloramphenicol (total 27 g); occasionally other antibiotics were used. In Group I, II and III the mean number of days until defervescence was 16, 8 and 6 and the mean number of days in hospital 43, 47 and 15, respectively. Mortality was 26%, 10% and 5% and complications occurred in 38%, 18% and 13%, respectively. Between Group I and Group II the differences in mortality and complications were statistically significant (P < 0.05). Compared to Group I the proportion of early relapses was higher in Group II, but was zero in Group III. There were significantly fewer gastrointestinal complications in Group II than in Group I (P < 0.01) and even fewer in Group III. When no antibiotic against S. typhi was available, typhoid fever had a protracted course, and only 74% of patients survived. Even with low dosages of chloramphenicol, defervescence was earlier and mortality and complications decreased dramatically, but early relapses were frequent. Full doses of chloramphenicol for a sufficient period of time only slightly reduced mortality and complications further, but eliminated early relapses completely.

Phospholipase A2 is a circulating mediator in typhoid fever.

Circulating proinflammatory mediators have not been found in studies on typhoid fever, although the patients suffer from a systemic disease with characteristic protracted fever. The 14-kDa group II extracellular phospholipase A2 (PLA2) is induced by interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor and may mediate some of the effects of these cytokines. Circulating PLA2 concentrations were measured in 12 typhoid fever patients on various days after admission and after recovery. On admission, mean concentrations of PLA2 were elevated (1444 +/- 1560 ng/mL) and decreased gradually and significantly to day 14 (55 +/- 48 ng/mL). patients with complicated disease had significantly higher PLA2 levels on admission. PLA2 was not produced in a lipopolysaccharide-stimulated whole blood culture, indicating that PLA2 originates from other types of cells. These data indicate that PLA2 may be a mediator of disease in protracted inflammatory diseases such as thyroid fever.

Culture of Salmonella typhi and Salmonella paratyphi from blood and bone marrow in suspected typhoid fever.

We studied the yield of blood and bone marrow (BM) cultures in 145 patients clinically suspected of typhoid fever (TF) in Indonesia. The objectives were to compare the positivity of blood culture using 3 ml versus 10 ml of blood and to examine in how far specific antibiotic treatment for TF interfered with the positivity of BM culture. Blood for culture was collected before antibiotic treatment was initiated in hospital and BM 1 to 10 days after the start of treatment. Cultures were performed with Oxgall subcultured on SS agar. Seventy-nine per cent of patients was treated for 14 days or more with oral chloramphenicol, 18% with chloramphenicol followed by ampicillin or cotrimoxazol and 3% with other antibiotics. Cultures were positive for Salmonella typhi or S-paratyphi A in 57 of the 145 patients (39.3%) when 3 ml of blood was cultured and in 58 (40%) when 10 ml of blood was cultured. BM culture was positive despite antibiotic treatment in 70 patients (48.2%); this positivity was significantly greater than that of blood cultures (p < 0.05). When we considered the positivity of BM culture in relation to the number of days on antibiotics in hospital, the yield of BM culture remained apparently unchanged during the first 5 days of treatment. This may be the consequence of slow elimination of S.typhi or S.paratyphi by the antibiotics used and could be responsible for relapses.

Patterns of proinflammatory cytokines and inhibitors during typhoid fever.

Cytokines and inhibitors in plasma were measured in 44 patients with typhoid fever. Ex vivo production of the cytokines was analyzed in a whole blood culture system with and without lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Acute phase circulating concentrations of cytokines (+/- SD) were as follows: interleukin (IL)-1 beta, < 140 pg/mL; tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF alpha), 130 +/- 50 pg/mL; IL-6, 96 +/- 131 pg/mL; and IL-8, 278 +/- 293 pg/mL. Circulating inhibitors were elevated in the acute phase: IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA) was 2304 +/- 1427 pg/mL and soluble TNF receptors 55 and 75 were 4973 +/- 2644 pg/mL and 22,865 +/- 15,143 pg/mL, respectively. LPS-stimulated production of cytokines was lower during the acute phase than during convalescence (mean values: IL-1 beta, 2547 vs. 6576 pg/mL; TNF alpha, 2609 vs. 6338 pg/mL; IL-6, 2416 vs. 7713 pg/mL). LPS-stimulated production of IL-1RA was higher in the acute than during the convalescent phase (5608 vs. 3977 pg/mL). Inhibited production of cytokines during the acute phase may be due to a switch from a proinflammatory to an antiinflammatory mode.