A Comprehensive Review Exploring Allergic Rhinitis With Nasal Polyps: Mechanisms, Management, and Emerging Therapies.

Allergic rhinitis (AR) and nasal polyps (NP) are common inflammatory disorders of the upper airways that often coexist and significantly impact patients' quality of life. This comprehensive review explores the intricate relationship between AR and NP, elucidating the underlying mechanisms, clinical manifestations, and management strategies. Immunological mechanisms, genetic predispositions, and environmental factors contribute to the development and progression of both conditions. Pharmacological therapies, including intranasal corticosteroids and biologic agents, are cornerstone treatments for managing AR with NP. At the same time, surgical interventions such as functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS) may be necessary in refractory cases. Emerging therapies, including immunomodulatory agents and precision medicine approaches, hold promise in improving treatment outcomes. A multidisciplinary approach, personalized treatment plans, and patient education are essential for optimizing clinical practice. Future research should focus on identifying novel therapeutic targets, conducting large-scale clinical trials, exploring precision medicine approaches, and investigating the role of the microbiome. Addressing these research priorities and implementing evidence-based treatment strategies can improve outcomes for patients with AR and NP.

A Comprehensive Review on Biofilms in Otorhinolaryngology: Understanding the Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Treatment Strategies.

Biofilms, structured communities of microorganisms encased in a self-produced matrix, pose significant challenges in otorhinolaryngology due to their role in chronic and recurrent infections affecting the ear, nose, and throat (ENT) region. This review provides an overview of biofilms, emphasizing their formation, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment strategies in otorhinolaryngological disorders. Biofilms are pivotal in chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS), otitis media, laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR), and tonsillitis, contributing to treatment resistance and disease recurrence. Current diagnostic techniques, including imaging modalities, microbiological cultures, and molecular techniques, are discussed, alongside emerging technologies. Treatment strategies, ranging from conventional antibiotics to alternative therapies, such as biofilm disruptors, phage therapy, and immunomodulation, are evaluated in terms of their efficacy and potential clinical applications. The review underscores the significance of understanding biofilms in otorhinolaryngology and highlights the need for tailored approaches to diagnosis and management to improve patient outcomes.

Pattern and Severity of Allergic Rhinitis Correlated with Patient Characteristics: A Rural Hospital-Based Cross-Sectional Study.

Allergic Rhinitis (AR) is rising in incidence in both developed and developing countries. Genetics and epigenetics have a potential role to play. The pattern and severity of AR have implications with regard to choice of treatment, which itself could be related to patient specific genetic and epigenetic factors. Hence, the present study was undertaken to correlate the patient characteristics with AR pattern and severity, in order to understand the pathophysiology of AR. The study also aimed to find out the allergen sensitivity pattern among patients attending a tertiary care centre of rural central India, where climatic variations make it a high prevalence zone. Prospective Observational study on 90 patients with clinically diagnosed Allergic Rhinitis confirmed by Skin Prick Tests. Patient characteristics like demographic data, data relevant to allergen exposure, occupation, family history of atopy and gender; and Disease characteristics like severity (mild, mod-severe), pattern (continuous/ intermittent), type of disease (seasonal/perennial) were noted, analysed and correlation studied. Majority of the patients with AR were in the age group of 15-40 years. Medical students (52%) suffered from moderate to severe type of Allergic Rhinitis, with Persistent disease in approximately 80%. Similarly, 70.59% of farmers had moderate to severe type of the disease, with persistent disease in 70%. In the present study, in clinically diagnosed allergic rhinitis patients, Mite was the commonest allergen found on Skin Prick Test overall and in Medical students, whereas Pollen sensitivity was more common among farmers. 56.66% of the patients had negative family history of atopy. Severity and type of AR depend on allergen exposure. In farmers and medical professionals, persistent and moderate to severe type of disease was more common, as they were persistently exposed to different type of allergens, mites in case of medical professionals and pollens in farmers. Hence, the Disease characteristics, as defined by ARIA guidelines, should not be taken in isolation and management should consider the Patient characteristics for deciding and devising protocols. In the present study, more than 50% patients were without family history of atopy. Hence, the role of various environmental factors, leading to epigenetic changes could be a major contributor in the increase in incidence of allergic rhinitis in recent times. Occurrence of perennial moderate to severe form of disease, in majority of farmers, defies the phenomenon of "Hygiene Hypothesis", focusing on the role of epigenetic changes and various outdoor allergens in the development of allergic rhinitis in them.

A Facial Solitary Vellus Hair Cyst: A Rare Entity.

This case report details a rare occurrence of a vellus hair cyst presenting as a recurrent nodular swelling on the medial aspect of the right eye in a 23-year-old male. The patient underwent surgical excision guided by imaging studies, and the subsequent two-month follow-up revealed no signs of recurrence. Imaging, including contrast-enhanced computer tomography (CECT), played a crucial role in assessing the extent of the lesion and ruling out intracranial involvement. Histopathological examination confirmed the diagnosis, revealing cystic spaces with an attenuated lining containing vellus hair and marked fibrosis. The case underscores the importance of considering uncommon entities in differential diagnoses, emphasizes the efficacy of complete cyst removal in preventing recurrence, and contributes to the evolving understanding of vellus hair cysts. Further research is warranted to enhance our knowledge of their epidemiology and optimal management strategies.

Inverted Papilloma From Nasal Septum: A Rare Case Presentation.

Inverted sinonasal papillomas, also referred to as Schneiderian papillomas, are benign tumors originating from the Schneiderian membrane that lines the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses. They frequently display an endophytic growth pattern, in which the stroma beneath is invaded by epithelial cells. The exact cause of inverted sinonasal papillomas is unknown, but several theories have been offered. The most widely accepted theory states that these tumours arise from the metaplasia of the respiratory epithelium into a stratified squamous epithelium. This metaplastic process is thought to be brought on by irritant exposure, chronic inflammation, or viral infections like the human papillomavirus (HPV). While inverted sinonasal papillomas commonly arise from the paranasal sinuses and lateral walls of the nasal cavity, their occurrence from the nasal septum is relatively rare. Additionally, although inverted sinonasal papillomas are typically benign, they can exhibit locally aggressive behaviour and damage nearby structures. The histopathological examination revealed nuclear atypia, which raises questions about the potential for malignant transformation. We describe a rare case of an inverted sinonasal papilloma that developed from the nasal septum. The tumour spread into the septum's anterior cartilaginous region, causing the cartilage to deteriorate and develop mucosal defects. The rarity of an inverted sinonasal papilloma arising from the nasal septum along with its impact on cartilaginous septum is discussed. Careful monitoring and prolonged follow-up are therefore necessary to spot any signs of recurrence or malignant changes.

A Rare Association of Pituitary Macroadenoma With Nasopharyngeal Angiofibroma: A Case Report.

Pituitary macroadenoma and angiofibroma are two distinct and diverse types of tumors that can develop in different anatomical locations and clinical characteristics and are not typically related to each other in terms of their hormonal or developmental aspects. This case describes an adult male with pituitary macroadenoma with nasal angiofibroma. A 35-year-old male was diagnosed with pituitary macroadenoma and incidentally found to have juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (NPA). The patient underwent a diagnostic workup, including imaging studies and hormonal assays, which confirmed the concomitant presence of both tumors. The patient underwent successful endoscopic surgical excision of the NPA and transnasal transsphenoidal endoscopic pituitary macroadenoma excision as a two-stage operation. The patient was followed up postoperatively and had no evidence of tumor recurrence or hormonal imbalances. The importance of complete and comprehensive diagnostic workup and multidisciplinary management in achieving successful and optimum treatment outcomes for coexisting NPA and pituitary macroadenoma in an adult patient is highlighted in the present report.

The Impact of Oxidative Stress on Male Reproductive Function: Exploring the Role of Antioxidant Supplementation.

Male reproductive function is highly susceptible to oxidative stress, which arises from an imbalance between reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and antioxidant defense mechanisms. Oxidative stress can significantly impair sperm quality, including count, motility, morphology, and DNA integrity, leading to male infertility. Antioxidants play a crucial role in maintaining reproductive health by neutralizing ROS and protecting sperm cells from oxidative damage. This review article explores the impact of oxidative stress on male reproductive function and investigates the potential benefits of antioxidant supplementation in mitigating its detrimental effects. A comprehensive literature search was conducted to gather relevant studies examining the effects of oxidative stress on male fertility and the outcomes of antioxidant supplementation. The findings reveal that antioxidant supplementation can improve sperm quality, DNA integrity, and fertility outcomes in some individuals. However, conflicting research findings and limitations in study design highlight the need for further investigation. Factors such as individual variations, underlying causes of infertility, dosage, and duration of supplementation should be carefully considered. Lifestyle modifications, including a healthy diet and exercise, are crucial in reducing oxidative stress and optimizing male reproductive health. This review article provides valuable insights into the complex relationship between oxidative stress and male reproductive function, emphasizing the potential role of antioxidant supplementation as a supportive strategy. Further research is warranted to establish optimal protocols, identify specific subgroups that may benefit the most, and explore advancements in antioxidant therapies to improve male fertility outcomes.

Unveiling the Role of Hormonal Imbalance in Breast Cancer Development: A Comprehensive Review.

Breast cancer is a complex and multifactorial disease with a significant global impact. Hormonal imbalance has emerged as a crucial factor in breast cancer development, highlighting the importance of understanding the intricate interplay between hormones and breast tissue. This comprehensive review aims to unveil the role of hormonal imbalance in breast cancer by exploring the involvement of key hormones, including estrogen and progesterone, and their receptors in tumor development. The review delves into how hormonal imbalance impacts breast tissue, emphasizing the significance of hormone receptor status in guiding treatment decisions. Furthermore, the review investigates the influence of other hormones, such as insulin and growth factors, and their cross-talk with hormone pathways in breast cancer progression. The implications of hormonal imbalance assessment in breast cancer risk assessment and the importance of hormone testing in diagnosis and treatment decisions are also discussed. Moreover, the review provides an overview of the various hormonal therapies used in breast cancer treatment, their benefits, limitations, and ongoing research efforts to optimize their efficacy and overcome resistance. Future directions in hormonal therapy research, including developing novel therapies and personalized medicine approaches, are explored. This review underscores the need for a comprehensive understanding of hormonal imbalance in breast cancer to enhance prevention, diagnosis, and treatment strategies, ultimately improving outcomes for individuals affected by this disease.

Vestibular, Central, and Non-Vestibular Etiologies of Vertigo and Disequilibrium: A Rural Hospital-Based Cross-Sectional Comparative Analysis.

INTRODUCTION: Vertigo/dizziness is defined as disturbed postural awareness and could range from a feeling of sensation of spinning of self or surrounding. Dizziness or disturbed postural awareness is a common presentation in varying age groups. Vertigo has varied clinical presentations. Classically, there are four vertigo syndromes: vertigo, imbalance/disequilibrium, presyncope/lightheadedness, and psychogenic dizziness. The present study was conducted to examine the various etiologies involved in these syndromes and to help unmask the overlaps between them. This study also aimed to further classify the etiologies underlying these vertigo syndromes and overlaps into peripheral or vestibular, central, and non-vestibular. This would help develop a comprehensive management protocol for vertigo of any origin. METHODS: A prospective observational cross-sectional study was undertaken in a rural hospital in Central India. We studied patients with giddiness and categorized them into vertigo syndromes according to the site of origin of vertigo. We also compared overlaps in the presentation of vertigo. RESULTS: Out of the 80 patients that were studied, vertigo with disequilibrium was observed in 72.50% of the patients. Non-vestibular vertigo of cervicogenic origin was the common cause of vertigo seen in 36.25% of the patients occurring alone or in association with vestibular vertigo. Among patients with overlaps, vestibular vertigo with non-vestibular vertigo was the most common etiology observed in 89.65% of the patients with overlaps. CONCLUSION: The syndrome of "vertigo with disequilibrium" was the commonest presentation in the patients studied, followed by "vertigo syndrome" as an isolated symptom, not associated with "disequilibrium." Ours is probably the first study to report this observation of overlaps of two syndromes, with diagnostic implications.

A Review of Genetic and Gene Therapy for Parkinson's Disease.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a syndrome with deterioration of neurons, with its onset starting in the '20s, known as the young beginning of Parkinson's to the late inception of the ailment in the 60s. The majority of the environmental risk associated with PD is age. The pathophysiology of PD is related to the accretion of synuclein alpha (SNCA) protein leading to toxicity. This toxicity further leads to a depletion in dopamine levels, creating both motor and non-motor symptoms. PD is the combination of genetic and environmental risk factors. Linkage and association studies provided data on autosomal dominant and recessive genes linked to PD. Current treatment regimes involve using levodopa, catechol-O-methyl transferase inhibitors, anticholinergics, and monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) inhibitors. Genetic treatment is done by identifying possible targets. Gene therapy includes silencing, replacing, or correcting the flawed gene with a good gene. This therapy has the advantage of eliminating significant PD symptoms with fewer to no adverse effects than conventional treatment. These targets are organized into disease-modifying or non-disease modifying. The distinction between these two is that disease-modifying treatment stops the degeneration of neurons, while non-disease modifying treatment involves dopaminergic enzyme expression. In non-modifying targets, aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) therapy is used but not as a standalone, so the presentation of AADC, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), and GTP cyclohydrolase 1 (GCH) is done together as a tricistronic system. With these developments, a drug named prosavin is under clinical phase 1 trial. Disease-modifying targets involve glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF). Direct GDNF delivery reduces PD symptoms. This GDNF infusion technique works with a tetracycline-controlled transactivator. Gene therapy introduction into the treatment of PD would be beneficial as there would be lesser adverse effects seen as linked with conventional treatment involving levodopa, MAO-B inhibitors, and anticholinergics, among a few. This article discusses the genetic basis and genetic model of therapy for PD.

Ramsay Hunt Syndrome: An Introduction, Signs and Symptoms, and Treatment.

Ramsay Hunt syndrome is the complication of the virus varicella-zoster and the infection caused by it, which shows apparent geniculate ganglion involvement. This article discusses the etiology, epidemiology, and pathology of Ramsay Hunt syndrome. Clinically it may be presented as a vesicular rash on the ear or even in the mouth, pain in the ear, and facial paralysis. Some other rare symptoms may also be present, which are also discussed in this article. Skin involvement is also seen in some cases as patterns due to anastomoses between cervical and cranial nerves. This article provides an overview of how the varicella-zoster virus causes facial paralysis and other neurological symptoms. Knowing about this condition and its clinical features is essential to make an early diagnosis and, thus, provide a good prognosis. A good prognosis is required to reduce the nerve damage, prevent further complications, and start an early therapy of acyclovir and corticosteroid. This review also presents a clinical picture of the disease and its complications. The incidence of Ramsay Hunt syndrome has gradually decreased over time because of the development of the varicella-zoster vaccine and better health facilities. The paper also talks about how the diagnosis of Ramsay Hunt syndrome is made and the various treatment options available. Facial paralysis in Ramsay Hunt syndrome presents differently than Bell's Palsy. If not treated for too long, it may cause permanent muscle weakness and may also cause a loss of hearing. It may be confused with simple herpes simplex virus outbreaks or contact dermatitis.

Cartilage's Contribution in Otology: A Comprehensive Review of Its Role in Ear Surgery.

This comprehensive review thoroughly examines the pivotal role of cartilage in otologic surgery, elucidating its multifaceted contributions to both cosmetic and functional outcomes. From reconstructing the external ear to reinforcing the tympanic membrane and restoring the ossicular chain, cartilage emerges as a versatile and resilient biological material with unique properties that make it an invaluable resource for otologic surgeons. The review explores the nuances of cartilage's applications in various surgical contexts, emphasizing its significance in promoting tissue regeneration and healing. The text delves into advancements in tissue engineering, biodegradable scaffolds, and 3D printing technology, pointing toward a future where more precise and personalized interventions may redefine the landscape of otologic surgery. The convergence of these innovations holds the promise of elevating the standard of care, minimizing complications, and improving the quality of life for patients undergoing cartilage-based otologic procedures. This synthesis of current knowledge and future possibilities provides a valuable resource for otologists, surgeons, and researchers in the dynamic field of otology.

Adenotonsillar Hypertrophy and Cardiopulmonary Status: A Correlative Study.

Introduction Adenotonsillar hyperplasia in childhood is a common phenomenon. It has been reported in the literature that increased upper-airway resistance resulting from hypertrophied tonsils and adenoids can cause intermittent airway obstruction, chronic alveolar hypoventilation, and even lead to severe cardiopulmonary complications such as right ventricular (RV) failure and cor-pulmonale, a near-lethal culmination of pulmonary artery hypertension (PAH). This study was undertaken to explore and examine the association of adenotonsillar hypertrophy and cardiopulmonary status in patients with complaints of upper airway obstruction below the age of 20 years and to analyze the effect of adenotonsillar enlargement on pulmonary function tests and cardiac aberration reflected in the electrocardiography (ECG) changes.  Methods This study included patients visiting or admitted to the Otolaryngology/Ear, Nose, and Throat (ENT) and Paediatrics department of Acharya Vinoba Bhave Hospital, Sawangi (Meghe), Wardha, Maharashtra, India. It is an Observational Prospective Study conducted on 75 Patients (50 cases and 25 controls) below the age of 20 years. Inclusion criteria for cases included all patients of adenoid hypertrophy (AH) and adenotonsillar hypertrophy (ATH). Inclusion criteria for controls comprised all patients with a history and clinical examination not suggestive of any upper airway and pulmonary disease. All the patients were subjected to pulmonary function tests (PFT) and electrocardiography (ECG), and the values were compared. Results It was found that there was a decrease in the value of the parameters of the pulmonary function tests (PFT), which includes forced expiratory volume in the first second (FEV1), forced vital capacity (FVC), the ratio of the forced expiratory volume in the first one second to the forced vital capacity of the lungs (FEV1/FVC) and peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR) with increasing severity of the endoscopic grades of adenoid hypertrophy. This was found to be statistically significant. All the PFT parameters were significantly lower in the subset of patients with ATH compared to those with AH only, emphasizing the compounding effect of tonsillar volume. Between case and control subjects also, these differences were statistically significant. Seventeen (34%) out of the 50 patients studied in the present work were found to have abnormalities in their ECG, while no subject in the control group had any departure from normal. Nine of these 17 patients had AH, and eight had the adenotonsillar disease. In the 9 patients (18%) with AH, sinus arrhythmia was seen in 5 (10%), sinus tachycardia in 3 (6%), and Mobitz type 1 block in 1 (2%) patients. In 8 patients (16%) with AH, sinus arrhythmia was seen in 4 (8%), sinus tachycardia in 3 (6%), and Mobitz type 1 block in 1 (2%) patients. Overall, sinus arrhythmia was the commonest finding seen in 9 patients (18%). Conclusion Chronic obstructive adenotonsillar hypertrophy causes significant cardiovascular and pulmonary changes, which is often overlooked in the clinical setting. Symptoms of progressive pulmonary hypertension are minimal until the rapid onset of severe cardiac decompensation occurs. These entire cascades of events are reversible in the early stages and thus mandate early detection and treatment. Performing PFT and ECG in children with adenotonsillar disease is not mandatory but profitable even in the absence of obvious symptoms of upper airway obstruction.

Impact on Hearing Due to Prolonged Use of Audio Devices: A Literature Review.

Perpetuated exposure to higher decibels is one of the leading causes of noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL). The occurrence of NIHL has likewise been expanding in kids and adolescents. NIHL in youngsters and adolescents is connected with personal music players, which need earphones or headphones, and have powerful sound tones. The effects of such leisure activities and their relation to NIHL remains poorly studied. Various studies have been conducted to establish the degree of correlation between audio device usage and hearing disablement; recent studies show more agreeable data about the same. Therefore, the use of earphones and their effects on hearing needs to be well assessed, considering the high prevalence of the problem and the relative lack of literature for the same. The intent of the following review is to gather information regarding the manifestations of impairment in hearing due to audio devices with the objective to assess the correlation between hearing impairment and the use of audio devices. Also, guidelines established by Central Pollution Control Board regarding noise pollution need to be revised as per the present-day setting. The implementation of these guidelines is the responsibility of the companies that design and produce different types of audio devices. These devices should be made ear-safe according to standard safety guidelines related to hearing impairment from loud noise. This review has taken into consideration 23 authentic studies from all around the globe that state a positive or negative result after studying the correlation between NIHL and long-term noise exposure. The findings of this narrative review indicate that leisure activities involving the use of audio devices pose a risk of NIHL, and a need for further research in this domain is seen, given the ubiquitous and ever-increasing nature of their consumption.

A Review of the Middle Ear Risk Index as a Prognostic Tool for Outcome in Middle Ear Surgery.

This review article aims to scrutinize the studies conducted to determine a relationship between preoperative Middle Ear Risk Index (MERI) factors and postoperative graft acceptance and audiological gain in patients undergoing tympanoplasty procedures in middle ear surgeries. Critical analysis is done on numerous research and types of studies that were done in this area during the past years. The clinical and technical aspects connected to disease and its care have a variety of effects on the morphological and functional outcome of tympanoplasty. A better comprehension of these characteristics aids in better disease prognostication, surgical planning, and patient counseling. At the end of this review, we can conclude that the MERI score is inversely proportional to the post-operative graft acceptance and audiological gain. The accumulated MERI is hence a good prognostic factor for the hearing outcome of surgery.

An Unusual Case of Type 2 Fronto-Ethmoidal Mucopyocele.

Mucoceles of the paranasal sinuses are epithelium-lined cystic masses that develop when the sinus ostia get obstructed. They most frequently occur in the frontal and ethmoid sinuses. The paranasal sinus mucoceles' proximity to the orbit and skull base renders the patient at risk for substantial morbidity. Mucoceles have reactive bone growth, bleeding, fibrosis, and granulation tissue, which are histological traits of respiratory mucosa. The conventional therapy is surgical excision, with endoscopic procedures becoming more popular. A 60-year-old female patient reported to the ENT outpatient clinic complaining of swelling over the medial aspect of her left eye that had begun slowly and progressed over a year. Although there were no neurological, ocular, nasal, or facial symptoms clinically, radiological and cytological examinations aided us in arriving at the definitive diagnosis. The patient in this scenario had an infected mucocele and left medial canthal swelling with no visual impairment, which made it challenging to reach an accurate diagnosis. However, radiological evaluation and cytological examination focused on establishing a definitive diagnosis.

Non-Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve: A Rare Anatomical Entity in a Patient Undergoing Hemithyroidectomy.

A non-recurrent laryngeal nerve (NRLN) is a common anatomical modification with an occurrence rate ranging from 0.5% to 0.7% in surgical procedures related to thyroid pathology [1]. In this condition cervical vagus nerve reaches the larynx directly, increasing the likelihood of vocal cord palsy. Non-RLN injury can be reduced by anticipating it and identifying it early. This case report describes how a non-recurrent inferior laryngeal nerve was discovered intraoperatively during systemic dissection, averting intra-operative nerve injury. A 40-year-old female reported to the department of Otorhinolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery Outpatient Clinic for a nodular tumor in her neck that has been increasing for the previous five years. The colloid multi-nodular thyroid of the right lobe was confirmed by a fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC). The patient was lined up for a surgical procedure requiring resection of the right lobe of the thyroid. A non-recurrent right inferior laryngeal nerve was discovered during surgery. The operation and recovery went smoothly, and there was no change in his voice in subsequent follow-ups. For those who are related to this professional line, this presentation provides a summary of what a non-recurrent laryngeal nerve looks like during surgery. This is critical for anyone undergoing diagnostic and surgical procedures which demand to be invasive in the region involving the neck and upper thorax, as it lowers the risk of iatrogenic nerve injury. A solitary trauma of this nerve can induce irreversible hoarseness, whereas a multilateral lesion might result in aphonia and potentially deadly dysphonia.

Otogenic Brain Abscess: Judicious Management in a Case of Chronic Suppurative Otitis Media.

Intracranial consequences from chronic otitis media can be dreadful. Meningitis is the most frequent complication followed by a cerebral abscess. In this pre-antibiotic era, otogenic brain abscess is rare, but it poses one of the life-threatening complications of otitis media. In recent years, brain abscess was noticed almost only in patients of chronic Otitis media with cholesteatoma. A case of a 36-year-old non-diabetic male patient with an otogenic cerebellar abscess, who presented with no cerebellar signs and unique intraoperative ossicular chain status was successfully managed by a combined approach of otolaryngology and neurosurgery, is presented in this report.

Presence of Contagious Bacterial Flora in Formalin-Fixed Cadavers: A Potential Health Hazard to Medical Professionals.

Cadaveric dissection is the most important learning tool in anatomy. Although many new modalities are coming up for learning anatomy, cadaveric dissection outstands all of these as it helps students to visualize the human body and remains the most realistic way of learning anatomy. The cadavers are preserved using formalin, a potent disinfectant. Even after embalming in 5-10% formalin, the cadaver might still be infectious while using it in the dissection hall (anatomy department). Numerous bacterial species and infectious pathogens might still be seen despite using fixative agents. Several disease-causing agents may remain viable. Earlier reports suggest that there are cases where students and the working staff got infected by HIV, viral hepatitis, tuberculosis, and prion diseases. The main objective of this study is to determine if bacterial species could be recovered from cadavers that are formalin-fixed. Specific regions in the body such as the axilla, perineum, finger clefts, and oral and nasal cavities were chosen for microbiological examination to detect bacterial species. The presence of skin folds in these regions makes them potential sites for the growth of bacteria. Formalin-fixed cadavers can still act as regions for the growth of viable bacteria that can be pathogenic and affect the health of students and anatomists handling them. Proper care should be taken regarding this because students and anatomists working with these cadavers may get exposed to pathogenic organisms which may become harmful or sometimes life-threatening. Some precautions for proper dissemination of cadavers should be taken to provide a complete, safe, and healthy ambiance in the dissection hall.

Migraine: An Underestimated Neurological Condition Affecting Billions.

The second most prevalent cause of years of disability worldwide is migraine, a neurological condition that causes a persistent headache that is lifelong. This condition affects more than a billion people globally. Its widespread prevalence and concomitant impairment have several adverse effects. Migraines are brought on by numerous behavioural, ecological, and genetic factors. There are various types of migraines, of which migraine without aura is the most common. The objective of this article is to determine the causes of migraine headaches, review the appropriate diagnosis of migraine, and describe the migraine headache management alternatives that are available. Various treatments for migraine are available on the market. Among the many types of headaches, migraines are neurological in nature and are inherited in some people. It has four phases: prodromal phase, aura, attack phase, and postdrome phase. Stress, anxiety, changes in the female endocrine system, bright lights, loud noises, foul odour, excessive or insufficient sleep, changes in the environment or the climate, flashes of light or intense lighting, overexertion, missing meals, drinking alcohol and smoking, quitting caffeine, and taking too many migraine drugs are some of the triggering factors for migraine. Diagnosis of migraine mainly relies on a good history. Appropriate prevention can be done for specific indications. Treatment mainly revolves around medications like analgesics, triptans, ergot derivatives, and newly derived biologics. Lifestyle modifications are also essential as many daily life factors contribute to migraine. Migraine can be well-managed if sufficient attention and care are given along with proper medications and guidance. The patient should not ignore symptoms and report to the physician at the earliest so that correct management can be done.