IL-10+ Innate-like B Cells Are Part of the Skin Immune System and Require α4ß1 Integrin To Migrate between the Peritoneum and Inflamed Skin.

The skin is an important barrier organ and frequent target of autoimmunity and allergy. In this study, we found innate-like B cells that expressed the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 in the skin of humans and mice. Unexpectedly, innate-like B1 and conventional B2 cells showed differential homing capacities with peritoneal B1 cells preferentially migrating into the inflamed skin of mice. Importantly, the skin-homing B1 cells included IL-10-secreting cells. B1 cell homing into the skin was independent of typical skin-homing trafficking receptors and instead required α4ß1-integrin. Moreover, B1 cells constitutively expressed activated ß1 integrin and relocated from the peritoneum to the inflamed skin and intestine upon innate stimulation, indicating an inherent propensity to extravasate into inflamed and barrier sites. We conclude that innate-like B cells migrate from central reservoirs into skin, adding an important cell type with regulatory and protective functions to the skin immune system.

CXCR4 is dispensable for T cell egress from chronically inflamed skin via the afferent lymph.

T cell recirculation through extralymphoid tissues is essential to immune surveillance, host defense and inflammation. In this process, T cells enter the tissue from the blood and subsequently leave via the afferent lymph. In the absence of inflammation, T cells require CCR7 expression to egress from the skin or lung, which is consistent with the constitutive expression of the CCR7 ligand CCL21 on lymphatic endothelium. However, during chronic inflammation alternative chemoattractants come into play, allowing Ccr7-deficient (Ccr7-/-) T cells to egress efficiently from affected skin. As T cell egress from inflamed sites is a potential control point of the inflammatory response, we aimed to determine alternative T cell exit receptors using a mouse and a sheep model. We show that CCR7+ and CCR7- T cells exiting from the chronically inflamed skin were highly responsive to the CXCR4 ligand CXCL12, which was induced in the lymphatics in the inflamed site. Based on these findings, we hypothesized that CXCR4 mediates T cell egress from inflamed skin. However, pharmacological inhibition of CXCR4 did not affect the tissue egress of wildtype or Ccr7-/- CD4 and CD8 T cells after adoptive transfer into chronically inflamed skin. Similarly, adoptively transferred Cxcr4-/- Ccr7-/- and Ccr7-/- T cells egressed from the inflamed skin equally well. Based on these data, we conclude that, while CXCR4 might play an essential role for other cell types that enter the afferent lymphatics, it is dispensable for T cell egress from the chronically inflamed skin.

Ovine skin-recirculating γδ T cells express IFN-γ and IL-17 and exit tissue independently of CCR7.

γδ T cells continuously survey extralymphoid tissues, providing key effector functions during infection and inflammation. Despite their importance, the function and the molecules that drive migration of skin-recirculating γδ T cells are poorly described. Here we found that γδ T cells traveling in the skin-draining afferent lymph of sheep are effectors that produce IFN-γ or IL-17 and express high levels of the skin- and inflammation-seeking molecule E-selectin ligand. Consistent with a role for chemokine receptor CCR7 in mediating T cell exit from extralymphoid tissues, conventional CD4 and CD8T cells in skin-draining lymph were enriched in their expression of CCR7 compared to their skin-residing counterparts. In contrast, co-isolated γδ T cells in skin or lymph lacked expression of CCR7, indicating that they use alternative receptors for egress. Skin-draining γδ T cells were unresponsive to many cutaneous and inflammatory chemokines, including ligands for CCR2, CCR4, CCR5, CCR8, CCR10, and CXCR3, but showed selective chemotaxis toward the cutaneously expressed CCR6 ligand CCL20. Moreover, IL-17(+) γδ T cells were the most CCL20-responsive subset of γδ T cells. The data suggest that γδ T cells survey the skin and sites of inflammation and infection, entering via CCR6 and E-selectin ligand and leaving independent of the CCR7-CCL21 axis.

The skin, a novel niche for recirculating B cells.

B cells infiltrate the skin in many chronic inflammatory diseases caused by autoimmunity or infection. Despite potential contribution to disease, skin-associated B cells remain poorly characterized. Using an ovine model of granulomatous skin inflammation, we demonstrate that B cells increase in the skin and skin-draining afferent lymph during inflammation. Surprisingly, skin B cells are a heterogeneous population that is distinct from lymph node B cells, with more large lymphocytes as well as B-1-like B cells that coexpress high levels of IgM and CD11b. Skin B cells have increased MHC class II, CD1, and CD80/86 expression compared with lymph node B cells, suggesting that they are well-suited for T cell activation at the site of inflammation. Furthermore, we show that skin accumulation of B cells and Ab-secreting cells during inflammation increases local Ab titers, which could augment host defense and autoimmunity. Although skin B cells express typical skin-homing receptors, such as E-selectin ligand and α-4 and ß-1 integrins, they are unresponsive to ligands for chemokine receptors associated with T cell homing into skin. Instead, skin B cells migrate toward the cutaneously expressed CCR6 ligand CCL20. Our data support a model in which B cells use CCR6-CCL20 to recirculate through the skin, fulfilling a novel role in skin immunity and inflammation.

Chemoattractant receptors and lymphocyte egress from extralymphoid tissue: changing requirements during the course of inflammation.

Memory/effector T cells traffic efficiently through extralymphoid tissues, entering from the blood and leaving via the afferent lymph. During inflammation, T cell traffic into the affected tissue dramatically increases; however, the dynamics and mechanisms of T cell exit from inflamed tissues are poorly characterized. In this study, we show, using both a mouse and a sheep model, that large numbers of lymphocytes leave the chronically inflamed skin. Many T cells capable of producing IFN-γ and IL-17 also entered the draining afferent lymph, demonstrating that memory/effector T cells egress from sites of inflammation. Whereas efficient egress from acutely inflamed skin required lymphocyte-expressed CCR7, chronic inflammation promoted significant CCR7-independent exit as well. Lymphocyte exit at late time points of inflammation was sensitive to pertussis toxin but was only partially affected by the drug FTY720, implying the contribution of alternative chemoattractant receptors other than spingosine 1-phosphate receptor 1. Our data show that CCR7 is an important receptor for lymphocyte egress from both resting and inflamed extralymphoid tissues, but that alternative exit receptors come into play during chronic inflammation.