Unveiling the Rational Development of Stimuli-Responsive Silk Fibroin-Based Ionogel Formulations.

We present an approach for the rational development of stimuli-responsive ionogels which can be formulated for precise control of multiple unique ionogel features and fill niche pharmaceutical applications. Ionogels are captivating materials, exhibiting self-healing characteristics, tunable mechanical and structural properties, high thermal stability, and electroconductivity. However, the majority of ionogels developed require complex chemistry, exhibit high viscosity, poor biocompatibility, and low biodegradability. In our work, we overcome these limitations. We employ a facile production process and strategically integrate silk fibroin, the biocompatible ionic liquids (ILs) choline acetate ([Cho][OAc]), choline dihydrogen phosphate ([Cho][DHP]), and choline chloride ([Cho][Cl]), traditional pharmaceutical excipients, and the model antiepileptic drug phenobarbital. In the absence of ILs, we failed to observe gel formation; yet in the presence of ILs, thermoresponsive ionogels formed. Systems were assessed via visual tests, transmission electron microscopy, confocal reflection microscopy, dynamic light scattering, zeta potential and rheology measurements. We formed diverse ionogels of strengths ranging between 18 and 642 Pa. Under 25 °C storage, formulations containing polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) showed an ionogel formation period ranging over 14 days, increasing in the order of [Cho][DHP], [Cho][OAc], and [Cho][Cl]. Formulations lacking PVP showed an ionogel formation period ranging over 32 days, increasing in the order of [Cho][OAc], [Cho][DHP] and [Cho][Cl]. By heating from 25 to 60 °C, immediately following preparation, thermoresponsive ionogels formed below 41 °C in the absence of PVP. Based on our experimental results and density functional theory calculations, we attribute ionogel formation to macromolecular crowding and confinement effects, further enhanced upon PVP inclusion. Holistically, applying our rational development strategy enables the production of ionogels of tunable physicochemical and rheological properties, enhanced drug solubility, and structural and energetic stability. We believe our rational development approach will advance the design of biomaterials and smart platforms for diverse drug delivery applications.

How does the polymer architecture and position of cationic charges affect cell viability?

Polymer chemistry, composition and molar mass are factors that are known to affect cytotoxicity, however the influence of polymer architecture has not been investigated systematically. In this study the influence of the position of the cationic charges along the polymer chain on cytotoxicity was investigated while keeping constant the other polymer characteristics. Specifically, copolymers of various architectures, based on a cationic pH responsive monomer, 2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate (DMAEMA) and a non-ionic hydrophilic monomer, oligo(ethylene glycol)methyl ether methacrylate (OEGMA) were engineered and their toxicity towards a panel of cell lines investigated. Of the seven different polymer architectures examined, the block-like structures were less cytotoxic than statistical or gradient/tapered architectures. These findings will assist in developing future vectors for nucleic acid delivery.

Polymeric Carriers for Delivery of RNA Cancer Therapeutics.

As research uncovers the underpinnings of cancer biology, new targeted therapies have been developed. Many of these therapies are small molecules, such as kinase inhibitors, that target specific proteins; however, only 1% of the genome encodes for proteins and only a subset of these proteins has 'druggable' active binding sites. In recent decades, RNA therapeutics have gained popularity due to their ability to affect targets that small molecules cannot. Additionally, they can be manufactured more rapidly and cost-effectively than small molecules or recombinant proteins. RNA therapeutics can be synthesised chemically and altered quickly, which can enable a more personalised approach to cancer treatment. Even though a wide range of RNA therapeutics are being developed for various indications in the oncology setting, none has reached the clinic to date. One of the main reasons for this is attributed to the lack of safe and effective delivery systems for this type of therapeutic. This review focuses on current strategies to overcome these challenges and enable the clinical utility of these novel therapeutic agents in the cancer clinic.

Investigation of the Thermogelation of a Promising Biocompatible ABC Triblock Terpolymer and Its Comparison with Pluronic F127.

Thermoresponsive polymers with the appropriate structure form physical networks upon changes in temperature, and they find utility in formulation science, tissue engineering, and drug delivery. Here, we report a cost-effective biocompatible alternative, namely OEGMA30015-b-BuMA26-b-DEGMA13, which forms gels at low concentrations (as low as 2% w/w); OEGMA300, BuMA, and DEGMA stand for oligo(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate (MM = 300 g mol-1), n-butyl methacrylate, and di(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate, respectively. This polymer is investigated in depth and is compared to its commercially available counterpart, Poloxamer P407 (Pluronic F127). To elucidate the differences in their macroscale gelling behavior, we investigate their nanoscale self-assembly by means of small-angle neutron scattering and simultaneously recording their rheological properties. Two different gelation mechanisms are revealed. The triblock copolymer inherently forms elongated micelles, whose length increases by temperature to form worm-like micelles, thus promoting gelation. In contrast, Pluronic F127's micellization is temperature-driven, and its gelation is attributed to the close packing of the micelles. The gel structure is analyzed through cryogenic scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Ex vivo gelation study upon intracameral injections demonstrates excellent potential for its application to improve drug residence in the eye.

Effect of Polymer Molecular Mass and Structure on the Mechanical Properties of Polymer-Glass Hybrids.

Organic-inorganic hybrid materials are a promising class of materials for tissue engineering and other biomedical applications. In this systematic study, the effect of the polymer molecular mass (MM) with a linear architecture on hybrid mechanical properties is reported. Well-defined linear poly(methyl methacrylate-co-(3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate)) polymers with a range of MMs of 9 to 90 kDa and one 90 kDa star-shaped polymer were synthesized and then used to form glass-polymer hybrids. It was demonstrated that increasing linear polymer MM decreases the resultant hybrid mechanical strength. Furthermore, a star-polymer hybrid was synthesized as a comparison and demonstrated significantly different mechanical properties relative to its linear-polymer counterpart.

Homopolymer and ABC Triblock Copolymer Mixtures for Thermoresponsive Gel Formulations.

Our group has recently invented a novel series of thermoresponsive ABC triblock terpolymers based on oligo(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate with average Mn 300 g mol-1 (OEGMA300, A unit), n-butyl methacrylate (BuMA, B unit) and di(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate (DEGMA, C unit) with excellent thermogelling properties. In this study, we investigate how the addition of OEGMA300x homopolymers of varying molar mass (MM) affects the gelation characteristics of the best performing ABC triblock terpolymer. Interestingly, the gelation is not disrupted by the addition of the homopolymers, with the gelation temperature (Tgel) remaining stable at around 30 °C, depending on the MM and content in OEGMA300x homopolymer. Moreover, stronger gels are formed when higher MM OEGMA300x homopolymers are added, presumably due to the homopolymer chains acting as bridges between the micelles formed by the triblock terpolymer, thus, favouring gelation. In summary, novel formulations based on mixtures of triblock copolymer and homopolymers are presented, which can provide a cost-effective alternative for use in biomedical applications, compared to the use of the triblock copolymer only.

3D Printed Porous Methacrylate/Silica Hybrid Scaffold for Bone Substitution.

Inorganic-organic hybrid biomaterials made with star polymer poly(methyl methacrylate-co-3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate) and silica, which show promising mechanical properties, are 3D printed as bone substitutes for the first time, by direct ink writing of the sol. Three different inorganic:organic ratios of poly(methyl methacrylate-co-3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate)-star-SiO2 hybrid inks are printed with pore channels in the range of 100-200 µm. Mechanical properties of the 3D printed scaffolds fall within the range of trabecular bone, and MC3T3 pre-osteoblast cells are able to adhere to the scaffolds in vitro, regardless of their compositions. Osteogenic and angiogenic properties of the hybrid scaffolds are shown using a rat calvarial defect model. Hybrid scaffolds with 40:60 inorganic:organic composition are able to instigate new vascularized bone formation within its pore channels and polarize macrophages toward M2 phenotype. 3D printing inorganic-organic hybrids with sophisticated polymer structure opens up possibilities to produce novel bone graft materials.

Approaches to treating tuberculosis by encapsulating metal ions and anti-mycobacterial drugs utilizing nano- and microparticle technologies.

Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by a bacterial infection that affects a number of human organs, primarily the lungs, but also the liver, spleen, and spine, causing key symptoms of fever, fatigue, and persistent cough, and if not treated properly, can be fatal. Every year, 10 million individuals become ill with active TB resulting with a mortality approximating 1.5 million. Current treatment guidelines recommend oral administration of a combination of first-line anti-TB drugs for at least 6 months. While efficacious under optimum conditions, 'Directly Observed Therapy Short-course' (DOTS) is not without problems. The long treatment time and poor pharmacokinetics, alongside drug side effects lead to poor patient compliance and has accelerated the emergence of multi-drug resistant (MDR) organisms. All this, combined with the limited number of newly discovered TB drugs to treat MDR-TB and shorten standard therapy time, has highlighted the need for new targeted drug delivery systems. In this respect, there has been recent focus on micro- and nano-particle technologies to prepare organic or/and metal particles loaded with TB drugs to enhance their efficacy by targeted delivery via the inhaled route. In this review, we provide a brief overview of the current epidemiology of TB, and risk factors for progression of latent stage tuberculosis (LTBI) to the active TB. We identify current TB treatment regimens, newly discovered TB drugs, and identify studies that have used micro- or nano-particles technologies to design a reliable inhalation drug delivery system to treat TB more effectively.

Multimetallic Microparticles Increase the Potency of Rifampicin against Intracellular Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis ( M.tb) has the extraordinary ability to adapt to the administration of antibiotics through the development of resistance mechanisms. By rapidly exporting drugs from within the cytosol, these pathogenic bacteria diminish antibiotic potency and drive the presentation of drug-tolerant tuberculosis (TB). The membrane integrity of M.tb is pivotal in retaining these drug-resistant traits. Silver (Ag) and zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles (NPs) are established antimicrobial agents that effectively compromise membrane stability, giving rise to increased bacterial permeability to antibiotics. In this work, biodegradable multimetallic microparticles (MMPs), containing Ag NPs and ZnO NPs, were developed for use in pulmonary delivery of antituberculous drugs to the endosomal system of M.tb-infected macrophages. Efficient uptake of MMPs by M.tb-infected THP1 cells was demonstrated using an in vitro macrophage infection model, with direct interaction between MMPs and M.tb visualized with the use of electron FIB-SEM tomography. The release of Ag NPs and ZnO NPs within the macrophage endosomal system increased the potency of the model antibiotic rifampicin by as much as 76%, realized through an increase in membrane disorder of intracellular M.tb. MMPs were effective at independently driving membrane destruction of extracellular bacilli located at the exterior face of THP1 macrophages. This MMP system presents as an effective drug delivery vehicle that could be used for the transport of antituberculous drugs such as rifampicin to infected alveolar macrophages, while increasing drug potency. By increasing M.tb membrane permeability, such a system may prove effectual in improving treatment of drug-susceptible TB in addition to M.tb strains considered drug-resistant.

Scalable High-Affinity Stabilization of Magnetic Iron Oxide Nanostructures by a Biocompatible Antifouling Homopolymer.

Iron oxide nanostructures have been widely developed for biomedical applications because of their magnetic properties and biocompatibility. In clinical applications, stabilization of these nanostructures against aggregation and nonspecific interactions is typically achieved using weakly anchored polysaccharides, with better-defined and more strongly anchored synthetic polymers not commercially adopted because of their complexity of synthesis and use. Here, we show for the first time stabilization and biocompatibilization of iron oxide nanoparticles by a synthetic homopolymer with strong surface anchoring and a history of clinical use in other applications, poly(2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine) [poly(MPC)]. For the commercially important case of spherical particles, binding of poly(MPC) to iron oxide surfaces and highly effective individualization of magnetite nanoparticles (20 nm) are demonstrated. Next-generation high-aspect-ratio nanowires (both magnetite/maghemite and core-shell iron/iron oxide) are, furthermore, stabilized by poly(MPC) coating, with the nanowire cytotoxicity at large concentrations significantly reduced. The synthesis approach exploited to incorporate functionality into the poly(MPC) chain is demonstrated by random copolymerization with an alkyne-containing monomer for click chemistry. Taking these results together, poly(MPC) homopolymers and random copolymers offer a significant improvement over current iron oxide nanoformulations, combining straightforward synthesis, strong surface anchoring, and well-defined molecular weight.

Effect of Comonomers on Physical Properties and Cell Attachment to Silica-Methacrylate/Acrylate Hybrids for Bone Substitution.

Hybrids with a silica network covalently bonded to a polymer are promising materials for bone repair. Previous work on synthesizing methyl methacrylate (MMA) based copolymers by reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization gives high tailorability of mechanical properties since sophisticated polymer structures can be designed. However, more flexible hybrids would be beneficial. Here, n-butyl methacrylate (BMA) and methyl acrylate (MA) based hybrids are produced. Unlike MMA, BMA and MA hybrids do not show plastic deformation, and BMA hybrid has strain to failure of 33%. Although the new hybrids are more flexible, preosteoblast cells do not adhere on their surfaces, due to higher hydrophobicity and lower stiffness. Comonomer choice is crucial for bone regenerative hybrids.

Biodegradable inorganic-organic hybrids of methacrylate star polymers for bone regeneration.

Hybrids that are molecular scale co-networks of organic and inorganic components are promising biomaterials, improving the brittleness of bioactive glass and the strength of polymers. Methacrylate polymers have high potential as the organic source for hybrids since they can be produced, through controlled polymerization, with sophisticated polymer architectures that can bond to silicate networks. Previous studies showed the mechanical properties of hybrids can be modified by polymer architecture and molar mass (MM). However, biodegradability is critical if hybrids are to be used as tissue engineering scaffolds, since the templates must be remodelled by host tissue. Degradation by-products have to either completely biodegrade or be excreted by the kidneys. Enzyme, or bio-degradation is preferred to hydrolysis by water uptake as it is expected to give a more controlled degradation rate. Here, branched and star shaped poly(methyl methacrylate-co-3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate) (poly(MMA-co-TMSPMA)) were synthesized with disulphide based dimethacrylate (DSDMA) as a biodegradable branching agent. Biodegradability was confirmed by exposing the copolymers to glutathione, a tripeptide which is known to cleave disulphide bonds. Cleaved parts of the star polymer from the hybrid system were detected after 2weeks of immersion in glutathione solution, and MM was under threshold of kidney filtration. The presence of the branching agent did not reduce the mechanical properties of the hybrids and bone progenitor cells attached on the hybrids in vitro. Incorporation of the DSDMA branching agent has opened more possibilities to design biodegradable methacrylate polymer based hybrids for regenerative medicine. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Bioactive glasses can regenerate bone but are brittle. Hybrids can overcome this problem as intimate interactions between glass and polymer creates synergetic properties. Implants have previously been made with synthetic polymers that degrade by water, however, they degrade catastrophically, causing rapid loss of strength. Polymers that degrade by biological agents may degrade at a more controlled rate, which should give time for tissue repair and transfer of load. Previously, hybrids made with star shaped poly(methyl methacrylate-co-3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate) (p(MMA-co-TMSPMA)) showed enhanced properties. However, methacrylates are not bio-degradable. Here, star shaped p(MMA-co-TMSPMA) was synthesized with a core that can be cleaved by glutathione, a tripeptide. On exposure to glutathione, the hybrid degraded, producing products with molecular weights below the kidney filtration threshold.

A Comprehensive Systematic Study on Thermoresponsive Gels: Beyond the Common Architectures of Linear Terpolymers.

In this study, seven thermoresponsive methacrylate terpolymers with the same molar mass (MM) and composition but various architectures were successfully synthesized using group transfer polymerization (GTP). These terpolymers were based on tri(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate (TEGMA, A unit), n-butyl methacrylate (BuMA, B unit), and 2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate (DMAEMA, C unit). Along with the more common ABC, ACB, BAC, and statistical architectures, three diblock terpolymers were also synthesized and investigated for the first time, namely (AB)C, A(BC), and B(AC); where the units in the brackets are randomly copolymerized. Two BC diblock copolymers were also synthesized for comparison. Their hydrodynamic diameters and their effective pKas were determined by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and hydrogen ion titrations, respectively. The self-assembly behavior of the copolymers was also visualized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Both dilute and concentrated aqueous copolymer solutions were extensively studied by visual tests and their cloud points (CP) and gel points were determined. It is proven that the aqueous solution properties of the copolymers, with specific interest in their thermoresponsive properties, are influenced by the architecture, with the ABC and A(BC) ones to show clear sol-gel transition.

Autonomous self-healing structural composites with bio-inspired design.

Strong and tough natural composites such as bone, silk or nacre are often built from stiff blocks bound together using thin interfacial soft layers that can also provide sacrificial bonds for self-repair. Here we show that it is possible exploit this design in order to create self-healing structural composites by using thin supramolecular polymer interfaces between ceramic blocks. We have built model brick-and-mortar structures with ceramic contents above 95 vol% that exhibit strengths of the order of MPa (three orders of magnitude higher than the interfacial polymer) and fracture energies that are two orders of magnitude higher than those of the glass bricks. More importantly, these properties can be fully recovered after fracture without using external stimuli or delivering healing agents. This approach demonstrates a very promising route towards the design of strong, ideal self-healing materials able to self-repair repeatedly without degradation or external stimuli.

Toward Hybrid Materials: Group Transfer Polymerization of 3-(Trimethoxysilyl)propyl Methacrylate.

In this study, the group transfer polymerization (GTP) of the functional monomer 3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate (TMSPMA) is reported to produce polymers of different architectures and topologies. TMSPMA is successfully polymerized and copolymerized with GTP to produce well-defined (co)polymers that can be used to fabricate functional hybrid materials like hydrogels and films.

ABC triblock copolymer micelles: spherical versus worm-like micelles depending on the preparation method.

Well-defined ABC triblock copolymers based on two hydrophilic blocks, A and C, and a hydrophobic block B are synthesized and their self-assembly behavior is investigated. Interestingly, at the same solvent, concentration, pH, and temperature, different shape micelles are observed, spherical and worm-like micelles, depending on the preparation method. Specifically, spherical micelles are observed with bulk rehydration while both spherical and worm-like micelles are observed with film rehydration.

Well-defined "clickable" copolymers prepared via one-pot synthesis.

Well-defined "clickable" homo- and co-polymers were synthesised using a living polymerisation technique. Specifically propargyl methacrylate was successfully homo- and co-polymerised using group transfer polymerisation, GTP. This one-pot synthesis was performed without the need to protect the acetylenic group. Finally it was confirmed that the acetylenic functional group was unaffected by the polymerisation by clicking with azide 4-azidobenzoic acid.

Water-in-water emulsions based on incompatible polymers and stabilized by triblock copolymers-templated polymersomes.

Aqueous solutions containing a mixture of polyethylene glycol (PEG) and dextran homopolymers form an aqueous two-phase system which can be emulsified to give a water-in-water emulsion. We show how these emulsions can be stabilized using triblock polymers containing poly[poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate] (PEGMA), poly (n-butyl methacrylate) (BuMA), and poly[2-(dimethylamino) ethyl methacrylate] (DMAEMA) blocks of general structure Pp-Bb-Dd, in which the middle BuMA block is hydrophobic. Low-energy input stirring of mixtures containing equal volumes of PEG- and dex-rich aqueous phases plus 1 wt % of Pp-Bb-Dd stabilizer all form dex-in-PEG emulsions (for the range of Pp-Bb-Dd triblock polymers used here) which have a polymersome-like structure. In favorable cases, the emulsion drop (or templated polymersome) sizes are a few micrometers and are stable for periods in excess of 6 months. The emulsions can be inverted from dex-in-PEG to PEG-in-dex by increasing the volume fraction of dex-rich aqueous phase. We demonstrate that both high and low molecular weight fluorescent solutes "self-load" into either the dex- or PEG-rich regions and that solute mass transfer across the water-water interface occurs on a timescale of less than 1 min.

Polymeric theranostics: using polymer-based systems for simultaneous imaging and therapy.

Polymer-based nanomedicine is a large and fast growing field. Polymer-based systems have been extensively used as therapeutic carriers as well as bioimaging agents for example in tumour diagnosis. However, fewer polymeric systems have been able to combine both therapy and imaging in a new field that is called theranostics (theragnostics). This review aims to summarise the recent developments and trends on polymeric theranostics. Four different types of therapies/treatments are examined namely drug delivery, gene delivery, photodynamic therapy and hyperthermia treatment combined with different imaging moieties like magnetic resonance imaging agents, fluorescent agents and microbubbles for ultrasound imaging.

Synthesis, characterization, and DNA adsorption studies of ampholytic model conetworks based on cross-linked star copolymers.

Five model conetworks based on cross-linked star ampholytic copolymers were synthesized by group transfer polymerization. The ampholytic copolymers were based on two hydrophilic monomers: the positively ionizable 2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate (DMAEMA) and the negatively ionizable methacrylic acid (MAA). Ethylene glycol dimethacrylate was used as the cross-linker. These five ampholytic model conetworks were isomers based on equimolar DMAEMA-MAA copolymer stars of different architectures: heteroarm (two), star block (two), and statistical. The two networks based on the homopolymer stars were also synthesized. The MAA units were introduced via the polymerization of tetrahydropyranyl methacrylate and the acid hydrolysis of the latter after network formation. All the precursors to the (co)networks were characterized in terms of their molecular weights using gel permeation chromatography (GPC). The mass of the extractables from the (co)networks was measured and characterized in terms of molecular weight and composition using GPC and proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) spectroscopy, respectively. The degrees of swelling (DS) of all the ampholytic conetworks were measured as a function of pH and were found to present a minimum at a pH value which was taken as the isoelectric point, pI. The DS and the pI values did not present a dependence on conetwork architecture. Finally, DNA adsorption studies onto the ampholyte conetworks indicated that DNA binding was governed by electrostatics.