Manganese deposition in drinking water distribution systems.

This study provides a physicochemical assessment of manganese deposits on brass and lead components from two fully operational drinking water distributions systems. One of the systems was maintained with chlorine; the other, with secondary chloramine disinfection. Synchrotron-based in-situ micro X-ray adsorption near edge structure was used to assess the mineralogy. In-situ micro X-ray fluorescence mapping was used to demonstrate the spatial relationships between manganese and potentially toxic adsorbed metal ions. The Mn deposits ranged in thickness from 0.01 to 400 µm. They were composed primarily of Mn oxides/oxhydroxides, birnessite (Mn(3+) and Mn(4+)) and hollandite (Mn(2+) and Mn(4+)), and a Mn silicate, braunite (Mn(2+) and Mn(4+)), in varying proportions. Iron, chromium, and strontium, in addition to the alloying elements lead and copper, were co-located within manganese deposits. With the exception of iron, all are related to specific health issues and are of concern to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). The specific properties of Mn deposits, i.e., adsorption of metals ions, oxidation of metal ions and resuspension are discussed with respect to their influence on drinking water quality.

Development of an Escherichia coli K12-specific quantitative polymerase chain reaction assay and DNA isolation suited to biofilms associated with iron drinking water pipe corrosion products.

A quantitative polymerase chain reaction assay (115 bp amplicon) specific to Escherichia coli K12 with an ABI(TM) internal control was developed based on sequence data encoding the rfb gene cluster. Assay specificity was evaluated using three E. coli K12 strains (ATCC W3110, MG1655 & DH1), 24 non-K12 E. coli and 23 bacterial genera. The biofilm detection limit was 10(3) colony-forming units (CFU) E. coli K12 mL(-1), but required a modified protocol, which included a bio-blocker Pseudomonas aeruginosa with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid buffered to pH 5 prior to cell lysis/DNA extraction. The novel protocol yielded the same sensitivity for drinking water biofilms associated with Fe3O4 (magnetite)-coated SiO2 (quartz) grains and biofilm-surface iron corrosion products from a drinking water distribution system. The novel DNA extraction protocol and specific E. coli K12 assay are sensitive and robust enough for detection and quantification within iron drinking water pipe biofilms, and are particularly well suited for studying enteric bacterial interactions within biofilms.

Mini-review: the morphology, mineralogy and microbiology of accumulated iron corrosion products.

Despite obvious differences in morphology, substratum chemistry and the electrolyte in which they form, accumulations of iron corrosion products have the following characteristics in common: stratification of iron oxides/hydroxides with a preponderance of α-FeOOH (goethite) and accumulation of metals. Bacteria, particularly iron-oxidizing and sulfate-reducing bacteria have been identified in some accumulations. Both biotic and abiotic mechanisms have been used to rationalize observations for particular sets of environmental data. This review is the first to compare observations and interpretations.

Establishment and early succession of bacterial communities in monochloramine-treated drinking water biofilms.

Monochloramine is an increasingly used drinking water disinfectant and has been shown to increase nitrifying bacteria and mycobacteria in drinking waters. The potential successions and development of these bacteria were examined by 16S rRNA gene clone libraries generated from various biofilms within a water distribution system simulator. Biofilms were obtained from in-line and off-line devices using borosilicate glass beads, along with polycarbonate coupons from annular reactors incubated for up to 8 months in monochloramine-treated drinking water. No significant difference in community structures was observed between biofilm devices and coupon material; however, all biofilm communities that developed on different devices underwent similar successions over time. Early stages of biofilm formation were dominated by Serratia (29%), Cloacibacterium (23%), Diaphorobacter (16%), and Pseudomonas (7%), while Mycobacterium-like phylotypes were the most predominant populations (> 27%) in subsequent months. The development of members of the nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) after 3 months may impact individuals with predisposing conditions, while nitrifiers (related to Nitrospira moscoviensis and Nitrosospira multiformis) could impact water quality. Overall, 90% of the diversity in all the clone library samples was associated with the phyla Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, and Bacteroidetes. These results provide an ecological insight into biofilm bacterial successions in monochloramine-treated drinking water.

Strontium concentrations in corrosion products from residential drinking water distribution systems.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) will require some U.S. drinking water distribution systems (DWDS) to monitor nonradioactive strontium (Sr(2+)) in drinking water in 2013. Iron corrosion products from four DWDS were examined to assess the potential for Sr(2+) binding and release. Average Sr(2+) concentrations in the outermost layer of the corrosion products ranged from 3 to 54 mg kg(-1) and the Sr(2+) drinking water concentrations were all ≤0.3 mg L(-1). Micro-X-ray adsorption near edge structure spectroscopy and linear combination fitting determined that Sr(2+) was principally associated with CaCO3. Sr(2+) was also detected as a surface complex associated with α-FeOOH. Iron particulates deposited on a filter inside a home had an average Sr(2+) concentration of 40.3 mg kg(-1) and the associated drinking water at a tap was 210 µg L(-1). The data suggest that elevated Sr(2+) concentrations may be associated with iron corrosion products that, if disturbed, could increase Sr(2+) concentrations above the 0.3 µg L(-1) US EPA reporting threshold. Disassociation of very small particulates could result in drinking water Sr(2+) concentrations that exceed the US EPA health reference limit (4.20 mg kg(-1) body weight).

Speciation and distribution of vanadium in drinking water iron pipe corrosion by-products.

Vanadium (V) when ingested from drinking water in high concentrations (>15 µg L(-1)) is a potential health risk and is on track to becoming a regulated contaminant. High concentrations of V have been documented in lead corrosion by-products as Pb(5)(V(5+)O(4))(3)Cl (vanadinite) which, in natural deposits is associated with iron oxides/oxyhydroxides, phases common in iron pipe corrosion by-products. The extent of potential reservoirs of V in iron corrosion by-products, its speciation, and mechanism of inclusion however are unknown. The aim of this study is to assess these parameters in iron corrosion by-products, implementing synchrotron-based µ-XRF mapping and µ-XANES along with traditional physiochemical characterization. The morphologies, mineralogies, and chemistry of the samples studied are superficially similar to typical iron corrosion by-products. However, we found V present as discrete grains of Pb(5)(V(5+)O(4))(3)Cl likely embedded in the surface regions of the iron corrosion by-products. Concentrations of V observed in bulk XRF analysis ranged from 35 to 899 mg kg(-1). We calculate that even in pipes with iron corrosion by-products with low V concentration, 100 mg kg(-1), as little as 0.0027% of a 0.1-cm thick X 100-cm long section of that corrosion by-product needs to be disturbed to increase V concentrations in the drinking water at the tap to levels well above the 15 µg L(-1) notification level set by the State of California and could adversely impact human health. In addition, it is likely that large reservoirs of V are associated with iron corrosion by-products in unlined cast iron mains and service branches in numerous drinking water distribution systems.

Identification and distribution of vanadinite (Pb5(V5+O4)3Cl) in lead pipe corrosion by-products.

This study presents the first detailed look at vanadium (V) speciation in drinking water pipe corrosion scales. A pool of 34 scale layers from 15 lead or lead-lined pipes representing eight different municipal drinking water distribution systems in the Northeastern and Midwestern portions of the United States were examined. Diverse synchrotron-based techniques, including bulk XANES (X-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy), micro-XANES, micro-XRD (X-ray diffraction), and micro-XRF (X-ray fluorescence) mapping were employed along with traditional powder XRD, SEM-EDXA (scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray analysis), and ICP-OES (inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry) to evaluate vanadium speciation and distribution in these deposits. Vanadinite (Pb5(VO4)3Cl) was positively identified, and occurred most frequently in the surface layers. Low V(tot) in these waters is likely the limiting factor in the abundance of vanadinite in the pipe scales, along with the existence of divalent lead. The occurrence of V in these samples as a discrete mineral is important because it is formed in the presence of very low concentrations of V in the finished water, it provides a mechanism to concentrate microg x L(-1) amounts of V from the water to near-percent levels in the pipe scales, and the robustness of V accumulation and release in response to water chemistry changes is likely different than it would be with a sorption accumulation mechanism. Extrapolation from limited existing water chemistry data in this study provides an estimate of deltaG(f)degrees for vanadinite as approximately -3443 kJ x mol(-1), or less, leading to a log K(s)0 value of approximately -86 for the reaction Pb5(VO4)3CI(s) equilibrium {Pb2+}5 + {VO4(3-) + {Cl-}, in which {} denotes activity.