Why and how unpredictability is implemented in aviation security - A first qualitative study.

In the past, aviation security regulations have mostly been reactive, responding to terrorist attacks by adding more stringent measures. In combination with the standardization of security control processes, this has resulted in a more predictable system that makes it easier to plan and execute acts of unlawful interference. The implementation of unpredictability, that is, variation of security controls, as a proactive approach could be beneficial for addressing risks coming from outside (terrorist attacks) and inside the system (insider threats). By conducting semi-structured interviews with security experts, this study explored why and how unpredictability is applied at airports. Results show that European airport stakeholders apply unpredictability measures for many reasons: To complement the security system, defeat the opponent, and improve human factor aspects of the security system. Unpredictability is applied at various locations, by different controlling authorities, to different target groups and application forms; nevertheless, the deployment is not evaluated systematically. Results also show how the variation of security controls can contribute to mitigating insider threats, for example, by reducing insider knowledge. Future research should focus on the evaluation of the deterrent effect of unpredictability to further give suggestions on how unpredictable measures should be realized to proactively address upcoming risks.

Towards the Validation of an Observational Tool to Detect Impaired Drivers-An Online Video Study.

Abuse of alcohol and other drugs is a major risk factor at work. To reduce this risk, workplace drug testing is performed in transportation and other industries. VERIFY, an observational method, is one of the key elements in a procedure adopted by the police of the canton of Zurich, Switzerland, for detecting impaired drivers. The observational method has been successfully applied by adequately trained police officers since 2014. The aim of this study is to examine the interrater reliability of the observational method, the effect of training in use of the method, and the role of having experience in the police force and traffic police force on the outcome when rating a driver's impairment. For this purpose, driver impairment in staged road traffic controls presented in videos was rated by laypeople (n = 81), and police officers without (n = 146) and with training (n = 172) in the VERIFY procedure. In general, the results recorded for police officers with training revealed a moderate to very good interrater reliability of the observational method. Among the three groups, impaired drivers were best identified by officers with training (ranging between 82.6% and 89.5% correct identification). Trained officers reported a higher impairment severity of the impaired drivers than the other two groups, indicating that training increases sensitivity to signs of impairment. Our findings also suggest that online video technology could be helpful in identifying impaired drivers. Trained police officers could be connected to a road traffic control to make observations via live video. By this method efficiency and reliability in detecting abuse of alcohol and other drugs could be improved. Our findings also apply to workplace drug testing in general.

Evaluating the Perceived Efficacy of Randomized Security Measures at Airports.

Both the increase in traveler numbers and the heightened threat posed by terrorism in recent years represent significant challenges to airport security measures. To ensure that a high level of security is maintained, randomized security checks have been proposed as a promising alternative to traditional security approaches. The use of randomized checks means that only a specific number of people are selected for security screening. However, the likely effects of such a change in security procedures on travelers' security perceptions and on the deterrence of criminal activities remain unclear. Thus, the present study examines how varying the percentage of people screened during security checks influences people's security perceptions. In two online experiments, the participants were asked to imagine that they sought to smuggle an explosive dummy past an airport security check. The only information provided was the number of people screened during security checks, which was manipulated between-subjects in the first experiment and within-subjects in the second experiment. The participants then had to rate their security perception (i.e., the perceived likelihood of successfully smuggling the explosive dummy). The findings show that people perceive traditional security checks to be safer than randomized checks, irrespective of whether 90% or 30% of people are screened. Hence, if randomized security checks would indeed be implemented, it would automatically lead to a decreased perception of security. Furthermore, this decreased security perception might lead to an actual reduction in security, as the deterrence of criminal activities could also be reduced.