Time-resolved absorption measurements quantify the competition of energy and electron transfer between quantum dots and cytochrome c.

We applied transient absorption spectroscopy to study the early photodynamics in a system composed of CdTe quantum dots (QDs) and cytochrome c (Cyt c) protein. In the QDs and Cyt c mixtures, about 25 % of the excited QD electrons quickly relax (∼23 ps) to the ground state and roughly 75 % decay on slower time scale - mostly due to quenching by Cyt c. On the basis of the assumed model, we estimated the contribution of electron transfer and other mechanisms to this quenching. The primary quenching mechanism is probably energy transfer but electron transfer makes a significant contribution (∼8 %), resulting in photoreduction of Cyt c. The lifetime of one fraction of reduced Cyt c (35-90 %) is âˆ¼ 1 ms and the lifetime of the remaining fraction was longer than the âˆ¼ 50-ms time window of the experiment. We speculate that, in the former fraction, the back electron transfer from the reduced Cyt c to QDs occurs and the latter fraction of Cyt c is stably reduced.

Monolithic 45 Degree Deflecting Mirror as a Key Element for Realization of 2D Arrays of Laser Diodes Based on AlInGaN Semiconductors.

In this study, we propose a solution for realization of surface emitting, 2D array of visible light laser diodes based on AlInGaN semiconductors. The presented system consists of a horizontal cavity lasing section adjoined with beam deflecting section in the form of 45° inclined planes. They are placed in the close vicinity of etched vertical cavity mirrors that are fabricated by Reactive Ion Beam Etching. The principle of operation of this device is confirmed experimentally; however, we observed an unexpected angular distribution of reflected rays for the angles lower than 45°, which we associate with the light diffraction and interference between the vertical and deflecting mirrors. The presented solution offers the maturity of edge-emitting laser technology combined with versatility of surface-emitting lasers, including on-wafer testing of emitters and addressability of single light sources.

InGaN Laser Diodes with Etched Facets for Photonic Integrated Circuit Applications.

The main objective of this work is to demonstrate and validate the feasibility of fabricating (Al, In) GaN laser diodes with etched facets. The facets are fabricated using a two-step dry and wet etching process: inductively coupled plasma-reactive ion etching in chlorine, followed by wet etching in tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH). For the dry etching stage, an optimized procedure was used. For the wet etching step, the TMAH temperature was set to a constant value of 80 °C, and the only variable parameter was time. The time was divided into individual steps, each of 20 min. To validate the results, electro-optical parameters were measured after each step and compared with a cleaved reference, as well as with scanning electron microscope imaging of the front surface. It was determined that the optimal wet etching time was 40 min. For this time, the laser tested achieved a fully comparable threshold current (within 10%) with the cleaved reference. The described technology is an important step for the future manufacturing of photonic integrated circuits with laser diodes integrated on a chip and for ultra-short-cavity lasers.

Electron Transfer in a Bio-Photoelectrode Based on Photosystem I Multilayer Immobilized on the Conducting Glass.

A film of ~40 layers of partially oriented photosystem I (PSI) complexes isolated from the red alga Cyanidioschyzon merolae formed on the conducting glass through electrodeposition was investigated by time-resolved absorption spectroscopy and chronoamperometry. The experiments were performed at a range of electric potentials applied to the film and at different compositions of electrolyte solution being in contact with the film. The amount of immobilized proteins supporting light-induced charge separation (active PSI) ranged from ~10%, in the absence of any reducing agents (redox compounds or low potential), to ~20% when ascorbate and 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol were added, and to ~35% when the high negative potential was additionally applied. The origin of the large fraction of permanently inactive PSI (65-90%) was unclear. Both reducing agents increased the subpopulation of active PSI complexes, with the neutral P700 primary electron donor, by reducing significant fractions of the photo-oxidized P700 species. The efficiencies of light-induced charge separation in the PSI film (10-35%) did not translate into an equally effective generation of photocurrent, whose internal quantum efficiency reached the maximal value of 0.47% at the lowest potentials. This mismatch indicates that the vast majority of the charge-separated states in multilayered PSI complexes underwent charge recombination.

Competition between intra-protein charge recombination and electron transfer outside photosystem I complexes used for photovoltaic applications.

Photosystem I (PSI) complexes isolated from three different species were electrodeposited on FTO conducting glass, forming a photoactive multilayer of the photo-electrode, for investigation of intricate electron transfer (ET) properties in such green hybrid nanosystems. The internal quantum efficiency of photo-electrochemical cells (PEC) containing the PSI-based photo-electrodes did not exceed ~ 0.5%. To reveal the reason for such a low efficiency of photocurrent generation, the temporal evolution of the transient concentration of the photo-oxidized primary electron donor, P+, was studied in aqueous suspensions of the PSI complexes by time-resolved absorption spectroscopy. The results of these measurements provided the information on: (1) completeness of charge separation in PSI reaction centers (RCs), (2) dynamics of internal charge recombination, and (3) efficiency of electron transfer from PSI to the electrolyte, which is the reaction competing with the internal charge recombination in the PSI RC. The efficiency of the full charge separation in the PSI complexes used for functionalization of the electrodes was ~ 90%, indicating that incomplete charge separation was not the main reason for the small yield of photocurrents. For the PSI particles isolated from a green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, the probability of ET outside PSI was ~ 30-40%, whereas for their counterparts isolated from a cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 and a red alga Cyanidioschyzon merolae, it represented a mere ~ 4%. We conclude from the transient absorption data for the PSI biocatalysts in solution that the observed small photocurrent efficiency of ~ 0.5% for all the PECs analyzed in this study is likely due to: (1) limited efficiency of ET outside PSI, particularly in the case of PECs based on PSI from Synechocystis and C. merolae, and (2) the electrolyte-mediated electric short-circuiting in PSI particles forming the photoactive layer, particularly in the case of the C. reinhardtii PEC.

Temperature dependence of nanosecond charge recombination in mutant Rhodobacter sphaeroides reaction centers: modelling of the protein dynamics.

We investigated the influence of a range of factors-temperature, redox midpoint potential of an electron carrier, and protein dynamics-on nanosecond electron transfer within a protein. The model reaction was back electron transfer from a bacteriopheophytin anion, HA-, to an oxidized primary electron donor, P+, in a wild type Rhodobacter sphaeroides reaction center (RC) with a permanently reduced secondary electron acceptor (quinone, QA-). Also used were two modified RCs with single amino acid mutations near the monomeric bacteriochlorophyll, BA, located between P and HA. Both mutant RCs showed significant slowing down of this back electron transfer reaction with decreasing temperature, similar to that observed with the wild type RC, but contrasting with a number of single point mutant RCs studied previously. The observed similarities and differences are explained in the framework of a (P+BA- ↔ P+HA-) equilibrium model with an important role played by protein relaxation. The major cause of the observed temperature dependence, both in the wild type RC and in the mutant proteins, is a limitation in access to the thermally activated pathway of charge recombination via the state P+BA- at low temperatures. The data indicate that in all RCs both charge recombination pathways, the thermally activated one and a direct one without involvement of the P+BA- state, are controlled by the protein dynamics. It is concluded that the modifications of the protein environment affect the overall back electron transfer kinetics primarily by changing the redox potential of BA and not by changing the protein relaxation dynamics.

Competition between Photoinduced Electron Transfer and Resonance Energy Transfer in an Example of Substituted Cytochrome c-Quantum Dot Systems.

Colloidal quantum dots (QDs) are nanoparticles that are able to photoreduce redox proteins by electron transfer (ET). QDs are also able to transfer energy by resonance energy transfer (RET). Here, we address the question of the competition between these two routes of QDs' excitation quenching, using cadmium telluride QDs and cytochrome c (CytC) or its metal-substituted derivatives. We used both oxidized and reduced versions of native CytC, as well as fluorescent, nonreducible Zn(II)CytC, Sn(II)CytC, and metal-free porphyrin CytC. We found that all of the CytC versions quench QD fluorescence, although the interaction may be described differently in terms of static and dynamic quenching. QDs may be quenchers of fluorescent CytC derivatives, with significant differences in effectiveness depending on QD size. SnCytC and porphyrin CytC increased the rate of Fe(III)CytC photoreduction, and Fe(II)CytC slightly decreased the rate and ZnCytC presence significantly decreased the rate and final level of reduced FeCytC. These might be partially explained by the tendency to form a stable complex between protein and QDs, which promoted RET and collisional quenching. Our findings show that there is a net preference for photoinduced ET over other ways of energy transfer, at least partially, due to a lack of donors, regenerating a hole at QDs and leading to irreversibility of ET events. There may also be a common part of pathways leading to photoinduced ET and RET. The nature of synergistic action observed in some cases allows the hypothesis that RET may be an additional way to power up the ET.

Insight into Electron Transfer from a Redox Polymer to a Photoactive Protein.

Biohybrid photoelectrochemical systems in photovoltaic or biosensor applications have gained considerable attention in recent years. While the photoactive proteins engaged in such systems usually maintain an internal charge separation quantum yield of nearly 100%, the subsequent steps of electron and hole transfer beyond the protein often limit the overall system efficiency and their kinetics remain largely uncharacterized. To reveal the dynamics of one of such charge-transfer reactions, we report on the reduction of Rhodobacter sphaeroides reaction centers (RCs) by Os-complex-modified redox polymers (P-Os) characterized using transient absorption spectroscopy. RCs and P-Os were mixed in buffered solution in different molar ratios in the presence of a water-soluble quinone as an electron acceptor. Electron transfer from P-Os to the photoexcited RCs could be described by a three-exponential function, the fastest lifetime of which was on the order of a few microseconds, which is a few orders of magnitude faster than the internal charge recombination of RCs with fully separated charge. This was similar to the lifetime for the reduction of RCs by their natural electron donor, cytochrome c2. The rate of electron donation increased with increasing ratio of polymer to protein concentrations. It is proposed that P-Os and RCs engage in electrostatic interactions to form complexes, the sizes of which depend on the polymer-to-protein ratio. Our findings throw light on the processes within hydrogel-based biophotovoltaic devices and will inform the future design of materials optimally suited for this application.

InGaN blue light emitting micro-diodes with current path defined by tunnel junction.

We have fabricated tunnel-junction InGaN micro-LEDs using plasma-assisted molecular beam epitaxy technology, with top-down processing on GaN substrates. Devices have diameters between 5 µm and 100 µm. All of the devices emit light at 450 nm at a driving current density of about 10Acm-2. We demonstrate that within micro-LEDs ranging in size from 100 µm down to 5 µm, the properties of these devices, both electrical and optical, are fully scalable. That means we can reproduce all electro-optical characteristics using a single set of parameters. Most notably, we do not observe any enhancement of non-radiative recombination for the smallest devices. We assign this result to a modification of the fabrication process, i.e., replacement of deep dry etching by a tunnel junction for the current confinement. These devices show excellent thermal stability of their light emission characteristics, enabling operation at current densities up to 1kAcm-2.

Photovoltaic activity of electrodes based on intact photosystem I electrodeposited on bare conducting glass.

We demonstrate photovoltaic activity of electrodes composed of fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) conducting glass and a multilayer of trimeric photosystem I (PSI) from cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 yielding, at open circuit potential (OCP) of + 100 mV (vs. SHE), internal quantum efficiency of (0.37 ± 0.11)% and photocurrent density of up to (0.5 ± 0.1) µA/cm2. The photocurrent measured for OCP is of cathodic nature meaning that preferentially the electrons are injected from the conducting layer of the FTO glass to the photooxidized PSI primary electron donor, P700+, and further transferred from the photoreduced final electron acceptor of PSI, Fb-, via ascorbate electrolyte to the counter electrode. This observation is consistent with preferential donor-side orientation of PSI on FTO imposed by applied electrodeposition. However, by applying high-positive bias (+ 620 mV) to the PSI-FTO electrode, exceeding redox midpoint potential of P700 (+ 450 mV), the photocurrent reverses its orientation and becomes anodic. This is explained by "switching off" the natural photoactivity of PSI particles (by the electrochemical oxidation of P700 to P700+) and "switching on" the anodic photocurrent from PSI antenna Chls prone to photooxidation at high potentials. The efficient control of the P700 redox state (P700 or P700+) by external bias applied to the PSI-FTO electrodes was evidenced by ultrafast transient absorption spectroscopy. The advantage of the presented system is its structural simplicity together with in situ-proven high intactness of the PSI particles.

On the nature of uncoupled chlorophylls in the extremophilic photosystem I-light harvesting I supercomplex.

Photosystem I core-light-harvesting antenna supercomplexes (PSI-LHCI) were isolated from the extremophilic red alga Cyanidioschyzon merolae and studied by three fluorescence techniques in order to characterize chlorophylls (Chls) energetically uncoupled from the PSI reaction center (RC). Such Chls are observed in virtually all optical experiments of any PSI core and PSI-LHCI supercomplex preparations across various species and may influence the operation of PSI-based solar cells and other biohybrid systems. However, the nature of the uncoupled Chls (uChls) has never been explored deeply before. In this work, the amount of uChls was controlled by stirring the solution of C. merolae PSI-LHCI supercomplex samples at elevated temperature (~303 K) and was found to increase from <2% in control samples up to 47% in solutions stirred for 3.5 h. The fluorescence spectrum of uChls was found to be blue-shifted by ~20 nm (to ~680 nm) relative to the fluorescence band from Chls that are well coupled to PSI RC. This effect indicates that mechanical stirring leads to disappearance of some red Chls (emitting at above ~700 nm) that are present in the intact LHCI antenna associated with the PSI core. Comparative diffusion studies of control and stirred samples by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy together with biochemical analysis by SDS-PAGE and BN-PAGE indicate that energetically uncoupled Lhcr subunits are likely to be still physically attached to the PSI core, albeit with altered three-dimensional organization due to the mechanical stress.

Remodeling of excitation energy transfer in extremophilic red algal PSI-LHCI complex during light adaptation.

Photosynthetic PSI-LHCI complexes from an extremophilic red alga C. merolae grown under varying light regimes are characterized by decreasing size of LHCI antenna with increasing illumination intensity [1]. In this study we applied time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy to characterize the kinetics of energy transfer processes in three types of PSI-LHCI supercomplexes isolated from the low (LL), medium (ML) and extreme high light (EHL) conditions. We show that the average rate of fluorescence decay is not correlated with the size of LHCI antenna and is twice faster in complexes isolated from ML-grown cells (~25-30 ps) than from both LL- and EHL-exposed cells (~50-55 ps). The difference is mainly due to a contribution of a long ~100-ps decay component detected only for the latter two PSI samples. We propose that the lack of this phase in ML complexes is caused by perfect coupling of this antenna to PSI core and lack of low-energy chlorophylls in LHCI. On the other hand, the presence of the slow, ~100-ps, fluorescence decay component in LL and EHL complexes may be due to the weak coupling between PSI core and LHCI antenna complex, and due to the presence of particularly low-energy or red chlorophylls in LHCI. Our study has revealed the remarkable functional flexibility of light harvesting strategies that have evolved in the extremophilic red algae in response to harsh or limiting light conditions involving accumulation of low energy chlorophylls that exert two distinct functions: as energy traps or as far-red absorbing light harvesting antenna, respectively.

Modelling of the cathodic and anodic photocurrents from Rhodobacter sphaeroides reaction centres immobilized on titanium dioxide.

As one of a number of new technologies for the harnessing of solar energy, there is interest in the development of photoelectrochemical cells based on reaction centres (RCs) from photosynthetic organisms such as the bacterium Rhodobacter (Rba.) sphaeroides. The cell architecture explored in this report is similar to that of a dye-sensitized solar cell but with delivery of electrons to a mesoporous layer of TiO2 by natural pigment-protein complexes rather than an artificial dye. Rba. sphaeroides RCs were bound to the deposited TiO2 via an engineered extramembrane peptide tag. Using TMPD (N,N,N',N'-tetramethyl-p-phenylenediamine) as an electrolyte, these biohybrid photoactive electrodes produced an output that was the net product of cathodic and anodic photocurrents. To explain the observed photocurrents, a kinetic model is proposed that includes (1) an anodic current attributed to injection of electrons from the triplet state of the RC primary electron donor (PT) to the TiO2 conduction band, (2) a cathodic current attributed to reduction of the photooxidized RC primary electron donor (P+) by surface states of the TiO2 and (3) transient cathodic and anodic current spikes due to oxidation/reduction of TMPD/TMPD+ at the conductive glass (FTO) substrate. This model explains the origin of the photocurrent spikes that appear in this system after turning illumination on or off, the reason for the appearance of net positive or negative stable photocurrents depending on experimental conditions, and the overall efficiency of the constructed cell. The model may be a used as a guide for improvement of the photocurrent efficiency of the presented system as well as, after appropriate adjustments, other biohybrid photoelectrodes.

Uphill energy transfer in photosystem I from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Time-resolved fluorescence measurements at 77 K.

Energetic properties of chlorophylls in photosynthetic complexes are strongly modulated by their interaction with the protein matrix and by inter-pigment coupling. This spectral tuning is especially striking in photosystem I (PSI) complexes that contain low-energy chlorophylls emitting above 700 nm. Such low-energy chlorophylls have been observed in cyanobacterial PSI, algal and plant PSI-LHCI complexes, and individual light-harvesting complex I (LHCI) proteins. However, there has been no direct evidence of their presence in algal PSI core complexes lacking LHCI. In order to determine the lowest-energy states of chlorophylls and their dynamics in algal PSI antenna systems, we performed time-resolved fluorescence measurements at 77 K for PSI core and PSI-LHCI complexes isolated from the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. The pool of low-energy chlorophylls observed in PSI cores is generally smaller and less red-shifted than that observed in PSI-LHCI complexes. Excitation energy equilibration between bulk and low-energy chlorophylls in the PSI-LHCI complexes at 77 K leads to population of excited states that are less red-shifted (by ~ 12 nm) than at room temperature. On the other hand, analysis of the detection wavelength dependence of the effective trapping time of bulk excitations in the PSI core at 77 K provided evidence for an energy threshold at ~ 675 nm, above which trapping slows down. Based on these observations, we postulate that excitation energy transfer from bulk to low-energy chlorophylls and from bulk to reaction center chlorophylls are thermally activated uphill processes that likely occur via higher excitonic states of energy accepting chlorophylls.

Acceleration of the excitation decay in Photosystem I immobilized on glass surface.

Femtosecond transient absorption was used to study excitation decay in monomeric and trimeric cyanobacterial Photosystem I (PSI) being prepared in three states: (1) in aqueous solution, (2) deposited and dried on glass surface (either conducting or non-conducting), and (3) deposited on glass (conducting) surface but being in contact with aqueous solvent. The main goal of this contribution was to determine the reason of the acceleration of the excitation decay in dried PSI deposited on the conducting surface relative to PSI in solution observed previously using time-resolved fluorescence (Szewczyk et al., Photysnth Res 132(2):111-126, 2017). We formulated two alternative working hypotheses: (1) the acceleration results from electron injection from PSI to the conducting surface; (2) the acceleration is caused by dehydration and/or crowding of PSI proteins deposited on the glass substrate. Excitation dynamics of PSI in all three types of samples can be described by three main components of subpicosecond, 3-5, and 20-26 ps lifetimes of different relative contributions in solution than in PSI-substrate systems. The presence of similar kinetic components for all the samples indicates intactness of PSI proteins after their deposition onto the substrates. The kinetic traces for all systems with PSI deposited on substrates are almost identical and they decay significantly faster than the kinetic traces of PSI in solution. We conclude that the accelerated excitation decay in PSI-substrate systems is caused mostly by dense packing of proteins.

Comparison of excitation energy transfer in cyanobacterial photosystem I in solution and immobilized on conducting glass.

Excitation energy transfer in monomeric and trimeric forms of photosystem I (PSI) from the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 in solution or immobilized on FTO conducting glass was compared using time-resolved fluorescence. Deposition of PSI on glass preserves bi-exponential excitation decay of ~4-7 and ~21-25 ps lifetimes characteristic of PSI in solution. The faster phase was assigned in part to photochemical quenching (charge separation) of excited bulk chlorophylls and in part to energy transfer from bulk to low-energy (red) chlorophylls. The slower phase was assigned to photochemical quenching of the excitation equilibrated over bulk and red chlorophylls. The main differences between dissolved and immobilized PSI (iPSI) are: (1) the average excitation decay in iPSI is about 11 ps, which is faster by a few ps than for PSI in solution due to significantly faster excitation quenching of bulk chlorophylls by charge separation (~10 ps instead of ~15 ps) accompanied by slightly weaker coupling of bulk and red chlorophylls; (2) the number of red chlorophylls in monomeric PSI increases twice-from 3 in solution to 6 after immobilization-as a result of interaction with neighboring monomers and conducting glass; despite the increased number of red chlorophylls, the excitation decay accelerates in iPSI; (3) the number of red chlorophylls in trimeric PSI is 4 (per monomer) and remains unchanged after immobilization; (4) in all the samples under study, the free energy gap between mean red (emission at ~710 nm) and mean bulk (emission at ~686 nm) emitting states of chlorophylls was estimated at a similar level of 17-27 meV. All these observations indicate that despite slight modifications, dried PSI complexes adsorbed on the FTO surface remain fully functional in terms of excitation energy transfer and primary charge separation that is particularly important in the view of photovoltaic applications of this photosystem.

Bacteriopheophytin triplet state in Rhodobacter sphaeroides reaction centers.

It is well established that photoexcitation of Rhodobacter sphaeroides reaction centers (RC) with reduced quinone acceptors results in the formation of a triplet state localized on the primary electron donor P with a significant yield. The energy of this long-lived and therefore potentially damaging excited state is then efficiently quenched by energy transfer to the RC spheroidenone carotenoid, with its subsequent decay to the ground state by intersystem crossing. In this contribution, we present a detailed transient absorption study of triplet states in a set of mutated RCs characterized by different efficiencies of triplet formation that correlate with lifetimes of the initial charge-separated state P(+)H A (-) . On a microsecond time scale, two types of triplet state were detected: in addition to the well-known spheroidenone triplet state with a lifetime of ~4 µs, in some RCs we discovered a bacteriopheophytin triplet state with a lifetime of ~40 µs. As expected, the yield of the carotenoid triplet increased approximately linearly with the lifetime of P(+)H A (-) , reaching the value of 42 % for one of the mutants. However, surprisingly, the yield of the bacteriopheophytin triplet was the highest in RCs with the shortest P(+)H A (-) lifetime and the smallest yield of carotenoid triplet. For these the estimated yield of bacteriopheophytin triplet was comparable with the yield of the carotenoid triplet, reaching a value of ~7 %. Possible mechanisms of formation of the bacteriopheophytin triplet state are discussed.

Weak temperature dependence of P (+) H A (-) recombination in mutant Rhodobacter sphaeroides reaction centers.

In contrast with findings on the wild-type Rhodobacter sphaeroides reaction center, biexponential P (+) H A (-)  â†’ PH A charge recombination is shown to be weakly dependent on temperature between 78 and 298 K in three variants with single amino acids exchanged in the vicinity of primary electron acceptors. These mutated reaction centers have diverse overall kinetics of charge recombination, spanning an average lifetime from ~2 to ~20 ns. Despite these differences a protein relaxation model applied previously to wild-type reaction centers was successfully used to relate the observed kinetics to the temporal evolution of the free energy level of the state P (+) H A (-) relative to P (+) B A (-) . We conclude that the observed variety in the kinetics of charge recombination, together with their weak temperature dependence, is caused by a combination of factors that are each affected to a different extent by the point mutations in a particular mutant complex. These are as follows: (1) the initial free energy gap between the states P (+) B A (-) and P (+) H A (-) , (2) the intrinsic rate of P (+) B A (-)  â†’ PB A charge recombination, and (3) the rate of protein relaxation in response to the appearance of the charge separated states. In the case of a mutant which displays rapid P (+) H A (-) recombination (ELL), most of this recombination occurs in an unrelaxed protein in which P (+) B A (-) and P (+) H A (-) are almost isoenergetic. In contrast, in a mutant in which P (+) H A (-) recombination is relatively slow (GML), most of the recombination occurs in a relaxed protein in which P (+) H A (-) is much lower in energy than P (+) H A (-) . The weak temperature dependence in the ELL reaction center and a YLH mutant was modeled in two ways: (1) by assuming that the initial P (+) B A (-) and P (+) H A (-) states in an unrelaxed protein are isoenergetic, whereas the final free energy gap between these states following the protein relaxation is large (~250 meV or more), independent of temperature and (2) by assuming that the initial and final free energy gaps between P (+) B A (-) and P (+) H A (-) are moderate and temperature dependent. In the case of the GML mutant, it was concluded that the free energy gap between P (+) B A (-) and P (+) H A (-) is large at all times.

Excitation energy transfer and charge separation are affected in Arabidopsis thaliana mutants lacking light-harvesting chlorophyll a/b binding protein Lhcb3.

The composition of LHCII trimers as well as excitation energy transfer and charge separation in grana cores of Arabidopsis thaliana mutant lacking chlorophyll a/b binding protein Lhcb3 have been investigated and compared to those in wild-type plants. In grana cores of lhcb3 plants we observed increased amounts of Lhcb1 and Lhcb2 apoproteins per PSII core. The additional copies of Lhcb1 and Lhcb2 are expected to substitute for Lhcb3 in LHCII trimers M as well as in the LHCII "extra" pool, which was found to be modestly enlarged as a result of the absence of Lhcb3. Time-resolved fluorescence measurements reveal a deceleration of the fast phase of excitation dynamics in grana cores of the mutant by ~15 ps, whereas the average fluorescence lifetime is not significantly altered. Monte Carlo modeling predicts a slowing down of the mean hopping time and an increased stabilization of the primary charge separation in the mutant. Thus our data imply that absence of apoprotein Lhcb3 results in detectable differences in excitation energy transfer and charge separation.

Monte Carlo simulations of excitation and electron transfer in grana membranes.

Time-resolved fluorescence measurements on grana membranes with instrumental response function of 3 ps reveal faster excitation dynamics (120 ps) than those reported previously. A possible reason for the faster decay may be a relatively low amount of "extra" LHCII trimers per reaction center of Photosystem II. Monte Carlo modeling of excitation dynamics in C2S2M2 form of PSII-LHCII supercomplexes has been performed using a coarse grained model of this complex, constituting a large majority of proteins in grana membranes. The main factor responsible for the fast fluorescence decay reported in this work was the deep trap constituted by the primary charge separated state in the reaction center (950-1090 cm(-1)). This value is critical for a good fit, whereas typical hopping times between antenna polypeptides (from ~4.5 to ~10.5 ps) and reversible primary charge separation times (from ~4 to ~1.5 ps, respectively) are less critical. Consequently, respective mean migration times of excitation from anywhere in the PSII-LHCII supercomplexes to reaction center range from ~30 to ~80 ps. Thus 1/4-2/3 of the ~120-ps average excitation lifetime is necessary for the diffusion of excitation to reaction center, whereas the remaining time is due to the bottle-neck effect of the trap. Removal of 27% of the Lhcb6 apoprotein pool by mutagenesis of DEG5 gene caused the acceleration of the excitation decay from ~120 to ~100 ps. This effect may be due to the detachment of LHCII-M trimers from PSII-LHCII supercomplexes, accompanied by deepening of the reaction center trap.