Gene, interaction, signal generation, signal divergence and signal transduction of the LH/CG receptor.

Trophoblastic neoplasms and choriocarcinoma cells express high levels of the hCG receptor. The hCG receptor is encoded by a single gene in chromosome 2p21-p16, spanning over -70 kb with 11 exons and 10 introns. Multiple mRNA species are produced from the gene utilizing two proximal promoters and several Sp-1 elements as well as proximal and distal suppressors. In fact, regulatory proteins which bind to one of these suppressors are expressed less in choriocarcinoma cell lines than in placenta. The LH/CG receptor is comprised of two structurally and functionally distinct domains, extracellular N-terminal exodomain and membrane embedded endodomain. These two domains can separately be expressed and processed, including folding. The exodomain alone has the high affinity hormone binding site but is not capable of generating hormonal signal. In contrast, the endodomain alone has the site for receptor activation. These two domains contact each other in holo-receptor and split receptor. This interaction, particularly through exoloops 2 and 3, constrains the high affinity hormone binding at the exodomain. Conversely, the exodomain could be involved in receptor activation. Therefore, these two domains are not entirely independent although they can be independently synthesized and processed. The existing evidence indicate that hCG and the receptor undergo multiple stages of interactions leading to receptor activation. Initial high affinity binding of hCG to the exodomain results into conformational adjustments of the hCG/exodomain complex. This leads to the secondary, low affinity contact of the hCG/exodomain complex with the endodomain. This secondary contact is responsible for generating signals. They are transduced through TM to the cytoplasmic portion (cytoloops and the C-terminal tail) of the receptor and then, transferred to cytoplasmic signaling molecules, such as G protein. Mutations in the exodomain and endodomain (N-extension, exoloops, TM, cytoloops, and cytoplasmic tail) have the potential to interfere with receptor activation at different steps, signal generation, transduction and transfer. Binding of hCG to the LH/CG receptor are known to induce two signals, one for adenylyl cyclase/ cAMP and the other for phospholipase C/inositol phosphate/diacylglycerol. The cAMP signal and IP signal diverge at the surface of the receptor. These independent signals are separately transduced through the transmembrane domains to the cytoplasmic part of the receptor, indicating the existence of the distinct transducers for each of the signals. Furthermore, it is likely that the divergent signals are separately transferred to cytoplasmic signal molecules such as G protein. In addition, each of the cAMP signal and IP signal consists of at least three separate subsignals: affinity signal, maximal production (efficacy) signal and basal level signal. In heterodimeric hCG, there are distinct parts responsible for high affinity receptor binding and receptor activation. Particularly, the C-terminal reduces of the alpha subunit play a crucial role in receptor activation. This alpha subunit is shared with other glycoprotein hormones, follicle stimulating hormone and thyroid stimulating hormone. Interesting, the alpha C-terminal residues play distinct roles in all three hormones, despite its common nature.

High affinity hormone binding to the extracellular N-terminal exodomain of the follicle-stimulating hormone receptor is critically modulated by exoloop 3.

The human follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSH-R) consists of two distinct domains of >330 amino acids, the N-terminal extracellular exodomain and membrane-associated endodomain. The exodomain alone binds hormone with high affinity, whereas the endodomain is the site of receptor activation. Coordination of these two domains is essential for successful hormone action but little is known about their functional and structural relationship. In this communication, we report that exoloop 3 of FSH-R constrains follicle-stimulating hormone binding to the exodomain. When the FSH-R exodomain was prepared by truncating its endodomain, the hormone binding affinity of the exodomain was slightly improved, compared with the wild type receptor. The binding affinity was further improved by >3-fold when the exodomain was attached to the membrane-associated domain of CD8. These results suggest that the FSH-R endodomain attenuates hormone binding at the exodomain. As a first step to test this hypothesis, the 11 amino acids except Ala589 of exoloop 3 were individually substituted with Ala. Ala substitution for Leu583 or Ile584 improved the hormone binding affinity by 4-6-fold while totally abolishing cAMP induction, indicating an inverse relationship. The Ala substitution for Lys580 or Pro582 had a similar trend but to a lesser extent. This significant improvement in the binding affinity suggests that the four residues at the N-terminal region of exoloop 3 interact with the exodomain and constrain the hormone binding in the wild type receptor. This effect is specific since substitutions for other than the 4 residues did not improve the hormone binding affinity. Computer modeling shows that the 4 residues can be positioned on one side of exoloop 3. This result and the apparent inverse relationship of hormone binding and cAMP induction suggest that these two essential functions may work against each other. Therefore, hormone binding might be compromised to preserve cAMP inducibility while maintaining a reasonably high, but below maximum, binding affinity.

Gene, interaction, signal generation, signal divergence and signal transduction of the LH/CG receptor.

Trophoblastic neoplasms and choriocarcinoma cells express high levels of the hCG receptor. The hCG receptor is encoded by a single gene in chromosome 2p21-p16, spanning over -70 kb with 11 exons and 10 introns. Multiple mRNA species are produced from the gene utilizing two proximal promoters and several Sp-1 elements as well as proximal and distal suppressors. In fact, regulatory proteins which bind to one of these suppressors are expressed less in choriocarcinoma cell lines than in placenta. The LH/CG receptor is comprised of two structurally and functionally distinct domains, extracellular N-terminal exodomain and membrane embedded endodomain. These two domains can separately be expressed and processed, including folding. The exodomain alone has the high affinity hormone binding site but is not capable of generating hormonal signal. In contrast, the endodomain alone has the site for receptor activation. These two domains contact each other in holo-receptor and split receptor. This interaction, particularly through exoloops 2 and 3, constrains the high affinity hormone binding at the exodomain. Conversely, the exodomain could be involved in receptor activation. Therefore, these two domains are not entirely independent although they can be independently synthesized and processed. The existing envidence indicate that hCG and the receptor undergo multiple stages of interactions leading to receptor activation. Initial high affinity binding of hCG to the exodomain results into conformational adjustments of the hCG/exodomain complex. This leads to the secondary, low affinity contact of the hCG/exodomain complex with the endodomain. This secondary contact is responsible for generating signals. They are transduced through TM to the cytoplasmic portion (cytoloops and the C-terminal tail) of the receptor and then, transferred to cytoplasmic signaling molecules, such as G protein. Mutations in the exodomain and endodomain (N-extension, exoloops, TM, cytoloops, and cytoplasmic tail) have the potential to interfere with receptor activation at different steps, signal generation, transduction and transfer. Binding of hCG to the LH/CG receptor are known to induce two signals, one for adenylyl cyclase/ cAMP and the other for phospholipase C/inositol phosphate/diacylglycerol. The cAMP signal and IP signal diverge at the surface of the receptor. These independent signals are separately transduced through the transmembrane domains to the cytoplasmic part of the receptor, indicating the existence of the distinct transducers for each of the signals. Furthermore, it is likely that the divergent signals are separately transferred to cytoplasmic signal molecules such as G protein. In addition, each of the cAMP signal and IP signal consists of at least three separate subsignals: affinity signal, maximal production (efficacy) signal and basal level signal. In heterodimeric hCG, there are distinct parts responsible for high affinity receptor binding and receptor activation. Particularly, the C-terminal reduces of the α subunit play a crucial role in receptor activation. This α subunit is shared with other glycoprotein hormones, follicle stimulating hormone and thyroid stimulating hormone. Interesting, the α C-terminal residues play distinct roles in all three hormones, despite its common nature.

The luteinizing hormone/chorionic gonadotropin receptor has distinct transmembrane conductors for cAMP and inositol phosphate signals.

The luteinizing hormone/chorionic gonadotropin receptor is a member of the seven-transmembrane receptor family. It is coupled, presumably via Gs and Gq, to two signal pathways involving adenylyl cyclase/cAMP and phospholipase C/inositol phosphate (IP). Little is known about the events prior to G-protein coupling: for example, whether these signals are generated from a single or multiple independent origins and mechanisms, when and where they diverge, and how they are transduced. We report novel observations that the cAMP signal and the IP signal originate and diverge upstream of G-protein coupling. The generation of these two signals independently involves Lys583 in exoloop 3 of the rat receptor. For this study, Lys583 of the receptor was substituted with a panel of amino acids, and mutant receptors were assayed for hormone binding and induction of cAMP, inositol monophosphate, inositol bisphosphate, and inositol trisphosphate. No substitutions for Lys583 were permissible for cAMP induction, despite successful surface expression and hormone binding. In contrast, several substitutions were permissible for IP induction. Our results suggest two distinct transmembrane signal conductors for cAMP and inositol phosphate signals and imply particular models of receptor activation not previously suggested.

Exoloop 3 of the luteinizing hormone/choriogonadotropin receptor. Lys583 is essential and irreplaceable for human choriogonadotropin (hCG)-dependent receptor activation but not for high affinity hCG binding.

The luteinizing hormone/choriogonadotropin (CG) receptor belongs to a subfamily of glycoprotein hormone receptors within the seven-transmembrane receptor family. It is comprised of an extracellular N-terminal half of 341 amino acids and a membrane-associated C-terminal half of 303 amino acids. The N-terminal half is capable of high affinity hormone binding whereas the C-terminal half is capable of low affinity hormone binding and receptor activation. However, the precise location of the receptor activation site is currently unknown. We present evidence for the first time that Lys583 of exoloop 3 is crucial and irreplaceable for receptor activation to induce cAMP synthesis. Exoloop 3 is comprised of 11 amino acids and flanked by two Lys residues, Lys573 and Lys583, that are located at the boundaries with the transmembrane columns 6 and 7, respectively. All substitutions including Arg for Lys583 did not affect the high affinity human CG binding, but they resulted in the complete loss of cAMP synthesis induced by human CG. Ala substitutions of the other amino acids in exoloop 3 did not make such a dramatic impact on cAMP induction. The Ala scan revealed two distinct groups of amino acids in terms of their importance in cAMP induction, one group being more important than the other. Interestingly, these two groups of amino acids are arranged in an alternate sequence. This result suggests a specific structure similar to a beta-like structure for exoloop 3.