Prescribing antibiotics by dentists in Colombia: Toward a conscientious prescription.

OBJECTIVES: Inappropriate prescription of antibiotics contributes to antibiotic resistance. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the awareness, attitudes, and intention to practice of dentists prescribing antibiotics in Colombia in order to design a virtual learning environment on this subject. METHODS: In a descriptive study across seven cities, 700 dentists from different Colombian cities were requested to complete a validated questionnaire containing five sections: general information, awareness on antibiotic effectiveness and antibiotic resistance, attitudes regarding prescription decision, intention to practice concerning clinical cases, and complementary information. The level of awareness, attitudes, and intention to practice was determined and Chi-square test was used to determine the existence of significant differences among cities. RESULTS: The majority of dentists showed a medium level regarding the number of correct answers on awareness (62.4 percent) and attitudes (88.7 percent) and a high level on intention to practice (91.7 percent). Common errors within the awareness section included the meaning of the term "antibiotic resistance" (35 percent) and most dentists were not convinced that such resistance could be derived from prescription of antibiotics (51.2 percent). In the attitudes section, only 45 percent declared that they prescribe antibiotics based mainly on symptoms, and the intention to practice section showed a significant percentage of unnecessary prescription (51 percent for pacemaker users) or absence of prescription (53.9 percent for ventricular septal defect) in antibiotic prophylaxis for infectious endocarditis (IE). CONCLUSION: The dentists interviewed should be trained and made aware of antibiotic resistance, microbiological and clinical foundations, and current antibiotic prophylaxis guidelines.

An Individual Patient Data Meta-Analysis with Colombian Studies on the Effect of Dark Chocolate Consumption on Cardiovascular Risk Parameters.

BACKGROUND: It is postulated that cocoa solids possess cardioprotective capacity by various mechanisms. In the different cocoa studies evaluating cardiovascular disease, there are no conclusive data on the role it plays in controlling the lipid profile and anthropometric variables, perhaps because the concentration of cocoa, the geographical origin of the population, and the different concentrations supplied lead to a high heterogeneity of results. This study aims to estimate the effect of consuming cocoa-rich chocolate compared to placebo on the lipid profile and anthropometric variables based on data from three clinical trials conducted in Colombia. METHODS: Meta-analysis of individual data from three randomized clinical trials conducted in Colombia. The entire population of the primary studies was included, which was reassigned into intervention groups if they consumed 50 grams of 70% concentrated cocoa or placebo, which was considered to be cocoa-free or with a concentration less than 50 grams. The variables at the beginning of the study were analyzed with medians, interquartile ranges, means, and deviations according to whether they met the normality assumption. Multiple imputations were used to manage missing data and were analyzed using the two approaches proposed for this type of study, that of one and two stages. In the two-stage approach, the data were weighted on a conventional Forrest plot, while in the one-stage approach, linear regressions with mixed models were applied. This study is governed by the regulations described in the 2013 Declaration of Helsinki and by article 11 of Resolution 8430 of 1993, which classifies it as a risk-free study. RESULTS: A total of 275 participants were included, who consumed cocoa or placebo for 81 days on average; 52.7% were female and few smoked at the time of the intervention (31/275). Physical activity performed in number of hours per week was comparable between the intervention groups. When evaluating total cholesterol, low-density cholesterol (LDL), high-density cholesterol (HDL), triglycerides, abdominal circumference, and final body mass index with both the one-stage and two-stage approaches, there were no significant differences between the two groups. CONCLUSIONS: According to the results obtained in the meta-analysis, the consumption of cocoa in the Colombian population does not seem to significantly modify variables such as lipid profile, abdominal circumference, and body mass index. This conclusion according to the quality of the evidence has a weak recommendation and a low-to-moderate certainty. However, the analysis through the two proposed approaches yielded similar results.

Ensayo clínico aleatorizado y controlado del efecto del consumo de cacao en pacientes con resistencia a la insulina / Randomized and controlled clinical trial of the effect of cocoa consumption in patients with insulin resistance

Resumen Objetivo: determinar el efecto del consumo de cacao en pacientes con sindrome metabólico. Diseño: se realizó un ensayo clínico aleatorizado, de grupos paralelos, controlado con placebo, prospectivo, doble enmascarado. Pacientes: personas entre 18 y 70 anos de edad, no diabéticos, con resistencia a la insulina. Intervención: durante ocho semanas se evaluó el efecto del consumo de 50 g de chocolate rico en polifenoles, el grupo control recibió placebo. Mediciones: al inicio y al final del estudio el índice HOMA-IR, circunferencia abdominal, índice de masa corporal (IMC), glucemia y perfil lipídico. Resultados: en el grupo experimental (n=37) hubo reducción del HOMA IR (3.24 inicial y 2.77 final, p= 0.02), reducción del peso corporal, en promedio 1.53 Kg (inicial 86.3 Kg y final de 84.8 Kg, p=0.002), disminución del IMC (34.3 Kg/m2 al inicio y 33.5 Kg/m2 al final, p= 0.0001) y disminución de la cintura abdominal (inicial 106.3 cm y final 102.5 cm, p= 0.0001). Al comparar los resultados del grupo tratado con chocolate negro con los del grupo control (n=38) hubo diferencia estadísticamente significativa en la media de cintura abdominal al final entre ambos grupos (102.5 cm para el experimental y 108.0 cm para el control, p=0.01). Conclusiones: este ensayo sugiere que el consumo de 50 gramos diarios de chocolate rico en sólidos de cacao durante ocho semanas se asocia con una disminución de la circunferencia abdominal y el índice HOMA-IR. Además, aporta una evidencia de mayor calidad que los estudios observacionales sobre el uso de cacao en la reducción de la obesidad, la adiposidad y en la prevención de la enfermedad cardiometabólica en pacientes colombianos. (Acta Med Colomb 2017: 42: 90-96). Registro en Clinical Trials: NCT03034291

Abstract Objective: to determine the effect of cocoa consumption in patients with metabolic syndrome. Design: a randomized, parallel-group, placebo-controlled, prospective, double-masked clinical trial was conducted. Patients: people between 18 and 70 years of age, non-diabetic, with insulin resistance. Intervention: the effect of consumption of 50 g of chocolate rich in polyphenols was evaluated for eight weeks. The control group received placebo. Measurements: at the beginning and at the end of the study, the HOMA-IR index, abdominal circumference, body mass index (BMI), blood glucose and lipid profile. Results: in the experimental group (n = 37) there was a reduction of HOMA IR (3.24 initial and 2.77 final, p = 0.02), reduction of body weight, on average 1.53 Kg (initial 86.3 Kg and final 84.8 Kg, p = 0.002), decreased BMI (34.3 at baseline and 33.5 at end, p = 0.0001) and decreased abdominal waist (initial 106.3 cm and final 102.5 cm, p = 0.0001). When comparing the results of the group treated with black chocolate with those of the control group (n = 38), there was a statistically significant difference in the mean abdominal waist at the end between both groups (102.5 cm for the experimental group and 108.0 cm for the control, p = 0.01). Conclusions: This study suggests that consumption of 50 grams of chocolate rich in cocoa solids daily for eight weeks is associated with a decrease in waist circumference and the HOMA-IR index. In addition, it provides evidence of higher quality than observational studies on the use of cocoa in the reduction of obesity, adiposity and in the prevention of cardiometabolic disease in Colombian patients. (Acta Med Colomb 2017: 42: 90-96). Register in Clinical Trials: NCT03034291

Comparación de la toma seriada de presión arterial y la monitorización ambulatoria para el diagnóstico de hipertensión esencial en una población colombiana / Comparison between serial measurement of blood pressure and ambulatory monitoring for the diagnosis of essential hypertension in a colombian population

Objetivos: comparar la toma seriada de la presión arterial en consultorio con la monitorización ambulatoria de la presión arterial durante 24 horas para el diagnóstico de hipertensión arterial con base en los criterios definidos en las guías de la European Society of Hypertension-European Society of Cardiology (ESH-ESC) y el Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Pressure (JNC-VII), en una población adulta, en la ciudad de Medellín. Métodos: se estudiaron 66 pacientes entre los 18 y 65 años, sin diagnóstico previo de hipertensión arterial ni factores de riesgo para enfermedad cardiovascular, por medio de tres métodos de toma de la presión arterial (ocasional, toma seriada, monitorización ambulatoria), los cuales se compararon según los diferentes métodos expuestos en las guías JNC-VII, ESH-ESC y de Atención de la Hipertensión Arterial, del Ministerio de la Protección Social de Colombia. Resultados: se estudiaron inicialmente 3.589 pacientes con una toma ocasional de la presión arterial, de los cuales 680 tenía cifras de tensión > 138/88. De éstos se citaron 346 para la toma seriada de la presión arterial; los restantes no cumplían con criterios de inclusión. Los 66 pacientes con promedio de presión arterial >140/90 clasificaron para una monitorización ambulatoria de la presión arterial. La sensibilidad de la toma seriada de la presión arterial interpretada por cualesquiera de las guías utilizadas, fue superior a 88% y la especificidad inferior a 22%; el coeficiente de probabilidad positivo fue cercano a 1 en todos los casos. Conclusión: la toma seriada de la presión arterial comparada con la monitorización ambulatoria de la presión arterial, tiene alta sensibilidad (mayor de 88%) y baja especificidad (menor de 22%) con base en las tres guías clínicas utilizadas, y no es recomendable como prueba de referencia.

Objectives: to compare serial measurement of blood pressure in office with ambulatory blood pressure over 24 hours for the diagnosis of hypertension based on the criteria defined in the guidelines of the European Society of Hypertension - European Society of Cardiology (ESH -ESC) and the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Pressure (JNC -VII) in an adult population in the city of Medellin. Methods: 66 patients between 18 and 65 years, with no previous diagnosis of hypertension nor risk factors for cardiovascular disease were studied, using three methods of blood pressure measurement (occasional, serial measurement of blood pressure, ambulatory blood pressure monitoring), which were compared according to the different methods outlined in JNC -VII guidelines, ESH-ESC guidelines of Hypertension Care from the Ministry of Social Protection of Colombia. Results: 3,589 patients were studied initially with occasional measurement of blood pressure, of which 680 had blood pressure levels > 138/88. Of these, 346 were cited for serial blood pressure measurement; the rest did not meet inclusion criteria. The 66 patients with average blood pressure > 140/90 qualified for ambulatory blood pressure monitoring. Sensitivity of the serial measurement of blood pressure interpreted by any of the guidelines used was higher than 88% and specificity of less than 22%; the positive odds ratio was close to 1 in all cases. Conclusion: serial blood pressure measurement compared with ambulatory blood pressure monitoring has high sensitivity (greater than 88%) and low specificity (less than 22%) based on the three clinical guidelines used, and is not recommended as a reference test.

Correlación entre la medición en consultorio y la monitorización ambulatoria de la presión arterial en pacientes hipertensos de Medellín, Colombia / Correlation between the blood pressure measurement in office and ambulatory monitoring in hypertensive patients in Medellín, Colombia

Introducción: investigaciones recientes refieren mayor correlación entre la monitorización ambulatoria de la presión arterial (MAPA) y el compromiso de órgano blanco. Este estudio busca establecer la correlación entre la medición de la presión arterial en consultorio y la MAPA en pacientes con diagnóstico reciente de hipertensión arterial. Métodos: pacientes con diagnóstico reciente de hipertensión arterial sin otros factores de riesgo cardiovascular. Se realizó toma de presión arterial en consultorio y MAPA. Se evaluó correlación entre las mediciones de presión arterial en consultorio y variables de la MAPA. Se categorizó el control de la hipertensión arterial de acuerdo con las guías del Joint National Committee 7 y la American Heart Association. Resultados: se hicieron 239 MAPA en 149 sujetos con una media (DE) de presión arterial sistólica y presión arterial diastólica clínica de 134,5 (13,8) mm Hg y 87,5 (9) mm Hg y en 24 horas de 129 (10,4) mm Hg y 80,1 (7,5) mm Hg, respectivamente, con una diferencia de -4,95 mm Hg (IC95%: -2,7; -7,2) y -7,4 mm Hg (IC95%: -5,9; -8,9) con respecto a la presión arterial clínica. Se encontró correlación entre la presión arterial clínica y las variables de MAPA (presión arterial sistólica r=0,4; p < 0,01, presión arterial diastólica r=0,48; p < 0,01). Para el control de la presión arterial con la toma clínica se encontró 43,7% de sensibilidad y 72,4% de especificidad en comparación con el otro método. Conclusión: existe correlación positiva entre la medición de la presión arterial clínica y por MAPA, pero la sensibilidad y especificidad de una sola medición en consultorio con respecto a la MAPA, la hace insuficiente para verificar el control de la presión arterial.

Introduction: Recent studies reported higher correlation between ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) and end-organ damage. This study aims to establish the correlation between office blood pressure measurement (OBPM) and ABPM in patients with newly diagnosed hypertension. Methods: Patients newly diagnosed with hypertension without other cardiovascular risk factors. OBPM and ABPM were performed. We evaluated the correlation between OBPM and ABPM variables. Hypertensive control was categorized in accordance with the Joint National Committee 7 and American Heart Association guidelines. Results: 239 ABPM in 149 subjects with a mean (SD) office SBP and DBP 134.5 (13.8) mmHg and 87.5 (9) mmHg and 24-hours SBP of 129 (10.4) mmHg and 24-hours DBP 80.1 (7.5) mmHg, a difference of -4.95 mmHg (95% CI: -2.7, -7.2) and -7.4 mmHg (95% CI: -5.9, -8.9) with respect to office BP. Positive correlation was found between office BP and ABPM variables (SBP r = 0.4, p <0.01, DBP r = 0.48, p <0.01).Sensitivity and specificity of office BP versus AMPB for hypertensive control were 43.7% and 72.4% respectively. Conclusion: There is positive correlation between OBPM and ABPM, but the sensitivity and specificity of a single measurement at office with regard to ABPM, makes it inadequate for evaluation of hypertensive control.

Prevalence of markers for hepatitis B virus and vaccination compliance among medical school students in Italy.

The prevalence of markers for hepatitis B virus (HBV) and the rate of compliance with HBV vaccination laws were investigated in a study at Padua University Medical School (Italy). Of 2,361 students, 385 (16.3%) tested negative for antibody to hepatitis B surface antigen. When vaccination was actively offered to these students, there was a low rate of compliance (47.0% [181 students]) but a good rate of seroconversion (93.1% [95 of 102 students]). Screening for HBV markers appears to be crucial to efforts to increase rates of vaccination coverage.

Correlación entre los niveles séricos de dehidroepiandrosterona sulfato con los estadios de maduración esquelética: informe final / Correlation between the seric levels of dehidroepiandrosterone sulphate with the skeletal maturation stages: final paper

Con el fin de detectar un indicador del inicio del brote puberal se correlacionaron los niveles séricos de DHEAS con la edad, el peso, la talla, el estadio de desarrollo esquelético (Hãgg y Taranger) y el de la maduración sexual (Tanner y orquidiometría de Prader). Se estudiaron 33 pacientes, 18 de sexo masculino y 15 de sexo femenino, entre los 8 y los 11 años de edad; el criterio de inclusión fue el de niños sanos con un estadio de maduración sexual de Tanner I. La toma de muestras se realizó cada seis meses durante tres años (2000-2002). El comportamiento de las variables antropométricas de la población general se publicó en el artículo de IGF-1 previo. En el grupo de niños no se observó ninguna correlación significativa entre el nivel de DHEAS con ninguna variable, excepto para el peso al inicio del estudio. En el grupo de niñas, la correlación se dio con el sesamoideo, aunque no fue a largo plazo y con el peso en la mitad del estudio. Sin embargo, ninguna de estas asociaciones y correlaciones confirma nuestra hipótesis inicial, ya que todas estas asociaciones fueron aisladas.

In order to detect an indicator of the onset of pubertal spurt, the DHEAS serie levels were correlated with age, weight, height, skeletal maturity stage (Hägg and Taranger) and sexual maturity (Tanner and, Prader). 33 patients; 18 males and 15 females, between 8 and 12 years old were studied. Healthy children in Tanner I sexual maturity stage was the research criteria for inclusion. The data were taken every six months during three years (2000-2002). The behavior of the anthropometric variables of the general population was published in a previous paper. In the group of males, we did not found any significant correlation between the seric levels of DHEAS with the studied variables, except for the weight at the beginning of the study. In the female group, a correlation was found with the ulnar sesamoid although not in the long term, and with the weight in the middle of the study. However, none of these associations and correlations confirmed our initial hypothesis because the correlations found were considerate such as isolated facts.

Papel de los adyuvantes en la modulación de la respuesta inmune / Role of adjuvant in the modulation of immune response

La inmunoprofilaxis es una herramienta valiosa en la prevención de las enfermedades infecciosas; ésta depende de la capacidad del sistema inmune para reconocer y desencadenar una respuesta efectora y de memoria ante los estímulos antigénicos usados como vacunas. Actualmente, existe la necesidad de desarrollar y mejorar las vacunas no replicativas ya existentes de manera que modulen e incrementen la efectividad de la respuesta inmune. Los adyuvantes constituyen una opción en el mejoramiento de este tipo de vacunas ya que incorporados en la formulación de éstas aumentan, aceleran o prolongan la calidad de la respuesta inmune a antígenos específicos. Los adyuvantes pueden ser clasificados de acuerdo a su mecanismo de acción en dos tipos: inmunoestimuladores y sistemas de liberación. Los adyuvantes inmunoestimuladores son derivados de patógenos(lipopolisacáridos, CpG) y su función es activar las células del sistema inmune innato. En contraste, los sistemas de liberación son partículas (emulsiones, micropartículas, ISCOMs) encargadas de entregar el antígeno asociado a una célula presentadora de antígeno. El descubrimiento y desarrollo de nuevos adyuvantes abre la posibilidad de implementar en un futuro vacunas terapéuticas y profilácticas contra el cáncer y enfermedades infecciosas agudas y crónicas que sean más eficaces y seguras para ser utilizadas en humanos y especies animales de importancia económica.

Erythrocyte aminolevulinic acid dehydratase inhibition by cis-platin.

The effect of cis-platin on erythrocyte aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALAD) activity was studied in vivo and in vitro. Young male Wistar rats were treated with a single i.p. injection of cis-platin at 2.5, 5.0, and 10.0mg/kg dose. In addition, a single i.p. injection of lead nitrate (1.0mg/kg dose) was administered as positive control. Experiments in vitro were also performed to elucidate the possible mechanism of action. The aminolevulinic acid dehydratase was almost completely inhibited in vitro from 0.5mM concentration, and the IC(50) was stated at 0.265 mM, 20 times higher than lead (IC(50) stated at 0.013 mM). Reduced glutathione, partially but significantly, reactivated in vitro the enzyme treated with cis-platin (0.5 and 5.0mM), whereas zinc showed a positive, significant effect with the higher dose (5.0mM) only. On the contrary, inhibition caused by lead (0.005 mM) was partially, but significantly restored by reduced glutathione, and, almost completely, by zinc. The experiments in vivo show that cis-platin causes a dose- and time-dependent inhibition of ALAD activity with 5.0 and 10.0mg/kg dose, until 66 and 33% of the control activity 96 h after treatment, respectively. The results show that erythrocyte ALAD is sensitive to cis-platin and suggest that the mechanism of enzyme inhibition is a direct interaction with sulfhydryl groups, whereas zinc site appears involved with the higher doses only. This mechanism appears different from lead that prevalently inhibits ALAD removing zinc from the enzyme, other than interacting with sulfhydryl groups.

Biological indices of kidney involvement in personnel exposed to sevoflurane in surgical areas.

BACKGROUND: Fluoride, a main metabolite, and one degradation product of sevoflurane (SEV), called Compound A, are known to cause kidney effects in experimental animals. Other than in volunteers and patients, no research is available on exposed workers. The possible effects on the kidney in workers exposed in surgical areas were studied. METHODS: Subjects exposed to SEV and nitrous oxide (N(2)O) in surgical areas (N = 61) using open (N = 25) or semi-closed (N = 36) circuits were submitted to biological monitoring. The same biological indices were determined in 43 controls also. Sevoflurane (SEVU), nitrous oxide (N(2)OU), total urinary proteins (TUP), N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase (NAGU), and glutamine synthetase (GSU) were measured in urine. RESULTS: The mean values of environmental exposure were 31.3 ppm (range 0.9-111.6 ppm) for N(2)O and 0.28 ppm (range 0-1.88 ppm) for SEV. Exposed subjects had significantly higher excretion of TUP; a higher, not significant, excretion of GSU was also observed in subjects using open circuits. A significant correlation was found in all exposed subjects between NAGU and SEVU (r = 0.303, P < 0.05), GSU and N(2)OU (r = 0.382, P < 0.01) and, especially, GSU and SEVU (r = 0.650, P < 0.001). These correlations appeared to be influenced by the use of open circuits; infact, NAGU was well correlated to N(2)OU (r = 0.770, P < 0.001) and SEVU (r = 0.863, P < 0.001); GSU to N(2)OU (r = 0.468, P < 0.05) and SEVU (r = 0.735, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Results show that no relevant effect on the kidney is present for the levels of exposure studied. Nevertheless, correlation between dose and response urinary indices supports that SEV, other than N(2)O, may influence kidney function, especially when open circuits are used.

Immunoglobulin M (IgM)-glycoinositolphospholipid enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay: an immunoenzymatic assay for discrimination between patients with acute toxoplasmosis and those with persistent parasite-specific IgM antibodies.

In the present study we developed an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to measure immunoglobulin M (IgM) specific for glycoinositolphospholipids (GIPL) derived from tachyzoite membrane (IgM-GIPL ELISA). The sensitivity and specificity of the assay were compared with those of commercially available Toxoplasma-specific IgM serological tests, namely, immunofluorescence assay (IFA) with fixed tachyzoites and capture ELISA employing tachyzoite extracts. Our results show that all patients with acute toxoplasmosis, as determined by clinical data and conventional serological tests, were also positive by the IgM-GIPL ELISA. Interestingly, many patients that were classified as indeterminate, who had IgG with high avidity but positive results in the IgM-specific IFA and capture ELISA, were negative by the IgM-GIPL ELISA. Finally, we tested the sera from patients with rheumatoid arthritis and various parasitic infections and found no evidence of false positives in the IgM-GIPL ELISA.

Correlación entre los niveles séricos de dehidhoepiandrosterona sulfato (DHEAS) con el estadío de maduración esquelética: primer informe / Correlation between seric levels of dehidroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) with the maturation skeletal stage

Con el fin de detectar un indicador del inicio del brote puberal, se correlacionaron los niveles séricos de DHEAS con el estadio de maduración esquelética (Taranger y Hagg), con la edad, el peso, la talla y con la madurez sexual (Tanner, orquidiometría de Prader). El estudio cuenta con 34 pacientes, 19 de género masculino y 15 de género femenino, entre los 8 y los 12 años de edad, a quienes se les tomaron datos, cada seis meses, los cuales se repetirán durante cuatro años. Este informe registra los datos de la muestra inicial. Se encontraron diferencias entre la madurez sexual de niños y niñas. Unicamente los niños presentaron niveles séricos mayores de Dehidroepiandrosterona sulfato (DHEAS) y menor madurez esquelética; mientras que las niñas presentaron mayor desarrollo esquelético y cifras mayores de DHEAS. En ambos grupos la DHEAS se correlacionó con el peso. La DHEAS se observó elevada en las niñas con desarrollo sexual mayor y la correlación entre ésta y la aparición del sesamoideo ulnar fue alta. Al parecer, la DHEAS se encuentra relacionada con el desarrollo esquelético aunque ello sólo podrá comprobarse con las mediciones posteriores

Estudio de las presiones en reposo de los bordes laterales de la lengua y de los carrillos en adolescentes con oclusión clase I / Evaluation of tongue and cheek pressures in adolescent patients with class I occlusion

La presente investigación se hizo en 50 personas (25 hombres y 25 mujeres), de edades entre los 13 y 18 años, con oclusión clase 1de Angle. Su objetivo fue el de registrar las presiones ejercidas por los bordes laterales de la lengua y por los carrillos sobre los dientes posteriores derechos (superiores e inferiores) durante una posición de descanso, después de haber realizado la dicción de la letra "m". Se quiso establecer así una forma de diagnosticar los diferentes tipos de maloclusión para intervenir en el tratamiento ortodóntico interceptivo. Para esto se utilizó un medidor de presiones serie HHP-I 00 Omega (Tednologies Co., Stanford, USA).- Se encontró un desequilibrio entre las fuerzas bucales y linguales, siendo las bucales 3 veces mayores durante una posición de descanso. Hubo gran variación individual, pero poca variación intraindividual; tampoco existió variación de las presiones de los bordes laterales de la lengua y de los carrillos entre los sexos...