[Thermodynamics of the origin of life, evolution and aging].

Briefly discusses the history of the search of thermodynamic approach to explain the origin of life, evolution and aging of living beings. The origin of life is the result of requirement by the quasi-equilibrium hierarchical thermodynamics, in particular, the supramolecular thermodynamics. The evolution and aging of living beings is accompanied with changes of chemical and supramolecular compositions of living bodies, as well as with changes in the composition and structure of all hierarchies of the living world. The thermodynamic principle of substance stability predicts the existence of a single genetic code in our universe. The thermodynamic theory optimizes physiology and medicine and recommends antiaging diets and medicines. Hierarchical thermodynamics forms the design diversity of culture and art. The thermodynamic theory of origin of life, evolution and aging is the development of Clausius-Gibbs thermodynamics. Hierarchical thermodynamics is the mirror of Darwin-Wallace's-theory.

[On the change in the isotopic composition of living beings during aging and evolution].

The article notes that the change in the isotopic composition of living beings during aging and in the evolution was predicted on the basis of the "principle of stability of matter". This principle was formulated by the author in the late 70's of the last century. New quantitative estimates were made, confirming the above prediction. To date, there are many studies that confirm those previously formulated approval by the author. These facts are a new confirmation of the thermodynamic theory of the origin of life, its evolution and aging of living beings.

[Life as a process of existence, reproduction and aging of polyhierarchical systems].

Comments on the definitions of life as a process of functioning polyhierarchic biological structures in the conditions of flow of energy to systems and existence of liquid water are presented. The phenomenon of life can be considered as a complex process of repeated cycles of origin, reproduction, aging, and death of polyhierarchical systems. Laws of thermodynamics and the principle of substance stability «are the driving forces¼ of this process. Life is a set of non-spontaneous and spontaneous processes of transformation and exchange of structures of different hierarchies in spatially isolated biological systems.

[Thermodynamic theory of evolution and aging].

Life in the Universe emerges and develops under certain conditions in accordance with the general laws of nature, in particular, in accordance with the law of temporal hierarchies, the second law of thermodynamics and the principle of stability of matter. Biological evolution and organism's aging are accompanied by a change in the chemical and supramolecular compositions of living bodies. As shown by the author in 1977 these well-known changes have the thermodynamic nature (origin). Phenomenological hierarchical thermodynamics of near-equilibrium quasi-closed systems allows us to explain and predict the evolutionary transformation in the living world. From a viewpoint of power-consuming substance of biological objects the phenomenon of life, first, is the struggle for power-consuming chemicals. The accumulation of this substance in biological systems is associated with the aspiration of the specific Gibbs function of formation of supramolecular structures of living organisms to a minimum. The development of classical science opens up new horizons to explore the real world and contributes to the success of gerontology and geriatrics. This paper is a brief review containing new results.

[On thermodynamic theory of evolution and aging of living beings].

The author states, that the thermodynamics is driving power of evolution and development. The evolution is characterized by a change of systems and objects of the universe. Evolution, phylogeny and ontogeny include spontaneous and non-spontaneous processes.

What is life? Bio-physical perspectives.

Life arises and develops in gravitationally bound atomic systems, under certain conditions, in the presence of the inflow of energy. A condition of structural dynamic reactivity to the energy inflow qualifies what are anthropomorphically considered as "alive objects". Alive objects, in this perspective, include such rudimentary animate atomic structures as the retinal molecule C20H28o to the herpes simplex virus C102H152N26o29 to the human being, a twenty-six element atomic structure, which can be quantified further as thermodynamic quasi-closed supramolecular systems, which are part of natural open systems. These systems appear and evolve in periodic conditions near to internal equilibrium. This systems attribute of dynamic life can be understood further by the determination and use of mathematical "state functions", which are functions that quantify the state of a system defined by the ensemble of physical quantities: temperature, pressure, composition, etc., which characterize the system, but neither by its surroundings nor by its history. In this view, the phenomenon of a life is easily understood as a general consequence of the laws of the universe, in particular, the laws of thermodynamics, which in the geocentric perspective translate to a formulation of "hierarchical thermodynamics" and a "principle of substance stability". The formation of living thermodynamic structures, in short, arises on the nanolevel by a constantly varying environment that causes variety of living forms. The definition of a life as the bio-chemical-physical phenomenon can thus be given on the basis of the exact sciences, i. e. chemistry, physics, and thermodynamics, without mention of numerous private attributes of a living substance and without physically baseless models of mathematical modeling, such as Prigoginean thermodynamics.

[Effect of foodstuff on healthy longevity].

The author models the human organism as complex chromatograph column, such that upon digestion of food-stuffs, in which some part of sustenance first reacts with hydrochloric acid and enzymes to break-down in the stomach. The nutritive particle molecules will then each migrate to different parts of the human molecular structure based on their relative thermodynamic stability and their relative chemical affinities for different intra-molecular attachment sites within the human molecule - the body. Hence, by way of correlating these theories and subsequent data to longevity statistics the author wish to assign gerontological values to food-stuffs based on enthalpy or heats (Gibbs function) of supramolecular interaction measurements. So, essentially, the author patented the idea that all items of food intake can be assigned an anti-aging value based on thermodynamic parameters.

[Life is inalienable component of matter evolution].

The law of temporal hierarchies makes it possible to identify quasi-closed monohierarchical systems in open polyhierarchical biological systems. It is possible to use the approaches of hierarchical quasi-equilibrium thermodynamics to establish the direction of ontogenesis and evolutionary processes. The law of temporal hierarchies helps to substantiate the idea that an overwhelming majority of supramolecular and other processes (at least structure-forming ones) in biological world take place in quasi-closed systems under regimen close to the state of equilibrium. Hence the conclusion that the relevant in vivo and in vitro processes can with equal justice be studied in terms of chemical, supramolecular, and generally speaking, hierarchical thermodynamics. The thermodynamic theory of origin, evolution and development of living systems and the thermodynamic theory of biological matter circulation boost the ideas of G. Galileo, J.K Maxwell, Ch. Darwin and other classics, based on belief that there exist universal natural laws operating at all hierarchical levels of matter. The author considers that the statements of article are connected with the cogency of equilibrium (quasi-equilibrium) thermodynamics, which is based on the method of full differentials.

[Gerontology and physico-chemical dietology]. / Gerontologiia i fiziko-khimicheskaia dietologiia.

The thermodynamic theory of biological evolution and aging of living beings makes it possible to propose the individual anti-aging diets on the basis of physical chemical estimations. In some cases it is possible to recommend the special drugs and dietary supplements against the different diseases too.

[Equilibrium thermodynamics of quasi-closed biological systems. Cell differentiation and development of organisms]. / Ravnovesnaia termokinamika kvazizakdrytykh biologicheskikh sistem. Differentsirovka kletok i razvitie organizmov.

The law of temporal hierarchies makes it possible to identify quasi-closed systems in open biological systems and to use the approaches of hierarchical quasi-equilibrium thermodynamics to establish the direction of ontogenesis and evolutionary processes. A short review of the achievements in the field of evolution biological thermodynamics and the thermodynamics of aging are presented. Cell differentiation, the development of multicell organisms, and the emergence of the structures of the higher hierarchies of the biological world are assumed to be determined by the thermodynamic direction of these processes. Cell organisms contain identical genes. Only some of them, however, function in the course of differentiation and development. Gene induction and repression during differentiation are determined by the position of newly emerging cells, whose properties depend on their functional position. These properties are determined by thermodynamic parameters of the cells' environment (thermostat), whose components and physicochemical characteristics affect gene induction and repression. A holographic (three-dimensional) design of the future organism (higher structures of the biological world) is determined by the thermodynamic demand for certain genes. The latter's operation is stimulated by their environment. One of the well-known examples that corroborates the presented model is the change of gene transcription when the nature of lipids and other metabolites contained in cells are changed. Application of the principle of stability of matter to the structures of adjacent hierarchies constitutes additional proof that quasi-equilibrium thermodynamics can be applied to the biological systems of the real world.

Thermodynamics of biological evolution and aging. Supramolecular thermodynamics is a key to understanding phenomena of life. What is life from a physical chemist's viewpoint.

The law of temporal hierarchies of the biological world allows us to pick out of the biomass quasi-closed thermodynamic systems with a given hierarchy. It has been established, that the use of this law of Nature as applied to supramolecular structures of organisms allows us the opportunity of using the methods of equilibrium supramolecular thermodynamics in the examination of open living systems. It has been shown that supramolecular thermodynamics is one of the "keys", which allows us to explain the origin of life and evolution of living beings. The second law of thermodynamics in its classic formulation (R. Clausius, J.W. Gibbs) is easy to apply in order to make calculations, carried out through methods of chemical, supramolecular and overall hierarchical thermodynamics.

[On the principle of substance stability and thermodynamic feedback in hierarchic systems of the bio-world]. / O printsipe stabil'nosti veshchestva i obratnykh termodinamicheskikh sviaziakh v ierarkhicheskikh sistemakh biomira.

The creation of structural hierarchies in open natural biosystems within the framework of quasi-closed systems is investigated by the methods of hierarchic thermodynamics (thermostatics). During the evolution of natural open systems, every higher hierarchic level j appears as a consequence of thermodynamic self-organization (self-assembly) of the structures of the lower (j-1)-th level. Such a self-assembly proceeds as a result of stabilization of the j-th level. This is related to the Gibbs' (Helmholtz') specific function of formation of the structure of the j-th level tending to a minimum. As a result of action of the principle of substance (matter) stability, the structures of the j-th level are enriched with less stable structures of the (j-1)-th level in the course of evolution. This provides a thermodynamic feedback between the structures of the higher j-th level and lower (j-1)-th level, thus preventing full structural stabilization of the j-th level and causing "thermodynamic rejuvenation" of biosystems. The latter enhances "thermodynamic" deceleration of evolution and practically unlimited maintenance of life. Examples of quantitative correlations are provided that call for further application of the substance stability principle to living and nonliving hierarchic structures.

[Thermodynamic theory of aging explaining reasons of aging and death with standpoint of general laws of nature]. / Termodinamicheskaia teoriia stareniia vyiavliaet prichiny stareniia s pozitsii zakonov prirody.

Thermodynamic theory of aging explains changes of the functions of states of cells and tissues during aging. The rates of aging depend on the genetic factors, the nature of habitat, nutrition and external influences. These rates can be different. Aging of organs, functional systems and tissues, as theirs diseases, lead decrease of adaptational ability of organism and its death.

[Thermodynamic theory of biological evolution and aging. Experimental verification of the theory]. / Termodinamicheskaia teoriia biologicheskoi évoliutsii i stareniia organizmov. Eksperimental'noe podtverzhdeniie teorii.

Experimental data confirming original thermodynamic theory of biological evolution and aging are presented. Biological evolution (phylogenesis) and ontogenesis can be easily described within the frames of equilibrium hierarchical thermodynamics on the basis of temporal hierarchies law and the second principle of thermodynamics. The theory explains many facts and suggests new practical proposals in medical and biological science, particularly, in dietology, gerontology, and geriatrics. Application of the temporal hierarchies model to studying living nature offers horizonless possibilities for its understanding.

[Thermodynamics of aging]. / Termodinamika stareniia.

The findings of macrothermodynamics (supramolecular thermodynamics) of quasi-closed systems and the published data about the variation of the chemical composition of living organisms in ontogeny confirm the thermodynamic tendency of aging processes. According to the thermodynamic theory, the specific value of the Gibbs function of the formation of supramolecular structures of the organism tends to a minimum. That tendency explains the variation of supramolecular and chemical composition and the morphology of tissues during aging. Thermodynamic theory makes it possible to define the principles upon which proper diets and medications can be devised to slow down aging. Such diets and medications are also useful in preventative care and in the treatment of various pathologies, including those related to old age. The chemical stability of the supramolecular structures of tissues makes it possible to understand the causes of the essentially continuous evolution of the biological world from the perspective of the second law of thermodynamics.

[The thermodynamic direction of biological evolution. The model and the reality]. / Termodinamicheskaia napravlennost' biologicheskoi évoliutsii. Model' i real'nost'.

A macrothermodynamic model of evolution of the supramolecular structures and chemical composition of living objects during ontogenesis and at long-term stages of general biological evolution is presented. A study of quasiclosed (thermodynamically and kinetically) systems, phases of the biomass supramolecular structures, enables a conclusion on the thermodynamic direction of biological evolution to be made. In correspondence with the second principle, this direction leads to variations in the chemical composition and structure of the living systems during their development. Indirect and direct evidence of the trend to a minimal Gibbs specific function of formation of the supramolecular structures in animal tissues during ontogenesis are presented. The conclusion that thermodynamics is the "driving force" of evolution of the biological world is confirmed.

[Hierarchical thermodynamics and gerontology]. / Ierarkhicheskaia termodinamika i gerontologiia.

The phenomenon of ageing of living creatures may be studied in the context of hierarchic thermodynamics. Ageing (ontogenesis) is regarded as a process of formation of the body's submolecular structure. A concept of the degree of ageing (the completion of ontogenesis) which is evaluated from changes in the Gibbs specific function of formation of the submolecular structure of the body's biological tissues is introduced. Quantitative criteria are proposed to find differences between the chronological and thermodynamic age of biological objects. The experimentally based thermodynamic approach reveals the impact of environmental parameters on longevity. The new discipline thermodynamic gerontology which will, in terms of the physical theory, substantially affect human longevity may be hoped to be formed in the coming years.

[The dynamic trends of biological evolution]. / O dinamicheskoi napravlennosti biologicheskoi évoliutsii.

The available data on the thermodynamic stability of supramolecular biological structures and variations in the chemical composition of living organisms have allowed a macrothermodynamic model of biological evolution to be developed experimentally. In this model, the tendency toward a minimum of the specific Gibbs function of the formation of supramolecular structures of living organisms causes variations in the chemical composition and structure of living systems. It is shown that in the course of ontogenesis and phylogenesis, as well as long-lasting stages in the evolution of the organic world, the biosystems (as a result of the thermodynamic direction of evolutionary processes of the formation of supramolecular structures) are enriched with energy-intensive chemical substances, which displace water from these biosystems. The change in the composition and structure of biostructures of an adaptive character is also explained from the angle of macrothermodynamics.