Correction: CD8+ T cells provide immune protection against murine disseminated endotheliotropic Orientia tsutsugamushi infection.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005763.].

CD8+ T cells provide immune protection against murine disseminated endotheliotropic Orientia tsutsugamushi infection.

Scrub typhus, caused by a Gram-negative obligately intracellular coccobacillus, Orientia tsutsugamushi, is a long neglected but important tropical disease. Orientia tsutsugamushi causes illness in one million people each year, and 1 billion people are at risk. Without appropriate diagnosis and treatment, the disease can cause severe multiorgan failure with a case fatality rate of 7-15%. The current gaps in knowledge of immunity include the unknown mechanisms of host immunity to O. tsutsugamushi. Using an intravenous (i.v.) disseminated infection mouse model, we observed that more CD8+ T cells than CD4+ T cells were present in the spleen of infected mice at 12 dpi. We also determined that Treg cells and the proportion of T cells producing IL-10 were significantly increased from 6 dpi, which correlated with the onset of illness, body weight loss, and increased bacterial loads. We further studied CD8-/-, MHC I-/- and wild type control (WT) C57BL/6J mice to determine the importance of CD8+ T cells and MHC I molecules. After infection with an ordinarily sub-lethal dose of O. tsutsugamushi, all CD8-/- and MHC I-/- mice were moribund between 12 and 15 dpi, whereas all WT mice survived. Bacterial loads in the lung, kidney, liver and spleen of CD8-/- and MHC I-/- mice were significantly greater than those in WT mice. Interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and granzyme B mRNA levels in the liver of CD8-/- and MHC I-/- mice were significantly greater than in WT mice. In addition, more severe histopathologic lesions were observed in CD8-/- mice. Finally, adoptive transfer confirmed a major role of immune CD8+ T cells as well as a less effective contribution by immune CD8 T cell-depleted splenocytes in protection against O. tsutsugamushi infection. These studies demonstrated the critical importance of CD8+ T cells in the host immune response during O. tsutsugamushi infection.

An Intradermal Inoculation Mouse Model for Immunological Investigations of Acute Scrub Typhus and Persistent Infection.

Scrub typhus is a neglected tropical disease, caused by Orientia tsutsugamushi, a Gram-negative bacterium that is transmitted to mammalian hosts during feeding by Leptotrombidium mites and replicates predominantly within endothelial cells. Most studies of scrub typhus in animal models have utilized either intraperitoneal or intravenous inoculation; however, there is limited information on infection by the natural route in murine model skin or its related early host responses. Here, we developed an intradermal (i.d.) inoculation model of scrub typhus and focused on the kinetics of the host responses in the blood and major infected organs. Following ear inoculation with 6 x 104 O. tsutsugamushi, mice developed fever at 11-12 days post-infection (dpi), followed by marked hypothermia and body weight loss at 14-19 dpi. Bacteria in blood and tissues and histopathological changes were detected around 9 dpi and peaked around 14 dpi. Serum cytokine analyses revealed a mixed Th1/Th2 response, with marked elevations of MCP-1/CCL2, MIP-1α/CCL3 and IL-10 at 9 dpi, followed by increased concentrations of pro-inflammatory markers (IL-6, IL-12, IFN-γ, G-CSF, RANTES/CCL5, KC/CCL11, IL-1α/ß, IL-2, TNF-α, GM-CSF), as well as modulatory cytokines (IL-9, IL-13). Cytokine levels in lungs had similar elevation patterns, except for a marked reduction of IL-9. The Orientia 47-kDa gene and infectious bacteria were detected in several organs for up to 84 dpi, indicating persistent infection. This is the first comprehensive report of acute scrub typhus and persistent infection in i.d.-inoculated C57BL/6 mice. This is a significant improvement over current murine models for Orientia infection and will permit detailed studies of host immune responses and infection control interventions.

Antibodies to West Nile virus in equines of Antioquia and Meta, Colombia, 2005-2008 / Anticuerpos contra el virus del Oeste del Nilo en equinos de Antioquia y Meta, Colombia, 2005-2008 / Anticorpos contra o Vírus do Nilo Ocidental em eqüinos da Antioquia e do Meta, Colômbia 2005-2008

West Nile Virus (WNV) is an arthropod-borne agent classified in the Flavivirus genus. Infection has been demonstrated in many vertebrate species including birds, mammals and reptiles. WNV can affect the nervous system of humans, horses and birds causing mild to severe illness and sometimes death. In 1999 WNV was introduced into the Americas causing a small outbreak in New York City. In the following years, the virus spread across North America and later into Central America, the Caribbean and parts of South America. Serological evidence of WNV in Colombia was first documented in 2005 in equines from the Atlantic coast; however clinical cases in humans or animals have not been reported. We extended these studies searching for WNV antibodies in sera of equines of two other provinces in Colombia: Antioquia and El Meta. IgG and IgM antibodies were first determined and reactive sera were processed by plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) to confirm the specificity of results. Four horses from Antioquia but none from El Meta tested positive for WNV antibodies. These results suggest that WNV has spread across the Atlantic coast and is now invading the Andean region in Colombia.

El virus del Oeste del Nilo (WNV) es un agente del género Flavivirus transmitido por artrópodos. La infección con WNV ha sido demostrada en muchas especies de aves, mamíferos y reptiles. El WNV puede afectar el sistema nervioso de humanos, caballos y aves causando enfermedad de leve a severa, ocasionando la muerte en algunos casos. En 1999, el virus fue introducido en Norteamérica causando un brote en la ciudad de New York. En los siguientes años, el virus se extendió por Norteamérica, y posteriormente fue encontrado en el Caribe, Centro y Suramérica. El primer reporte de anticuerpos para WNV en Colombia se hizo en 2005, en equinos de la costa Atlántica. En el presente estudio se extendió la búsqueda de anticuerpos a otros dos Departamentos de Colombia: Antioquia y El Meta. Primero se determinó la presencia de anticuerpos IgM e IgG, y los sueros reactivos fueron procesados para anticuerpos neutralizantes por la técnica de reduccion de placas para confirmar los resultados. Cuatro equinos de Antioquia y ninguno de El Meta fueron positivos para anticuerpos anti-WNV. Los resultados sugieren que el WNV está ampliamente distribuido en la costa Atlántica de Colombia y ha iniciado su dispersión por la zona andina.

O vírus do Nilo Ocidental é um agente transmitido por artrópodes e pertence ao género Flavivirus. A infecção tem sido demonstrada em várias espécies de vertebrados incluindo pássaros, mamíferos e répteis. O vírus do Nilo Ocidental pode afectar o sistema nervoso de humanos, eqüinos e pássaros, causando doença de severidade média à grave a qual pode causar a morte em alguns casos. Em 1999, o vírus do Nilo Ocidental foi introduzido no continente americano, causando um surto na cidade de Nova York. Posteriormente, o vírus se disseminou pela América do Norte e mais tarde pela América Central, Caribe e parte da América do Sul. Os primeiros relatos do vírus do Nilo Ocidental na Colômbia surgiram em 2005 afectando eqüinos na costa atlântica. O objectivo desse trabalho foi buscar anticorpos contra o vírus do Nilo Ocidental no soro de equinos de dois estados da Colômbia: Antioquia e Meta. Anticorpos da classe IgG e IgM foram primeiramente determinados e soros reactivos foram analisados pela técnica de neutralização por redução em placa (PRNT) para confirmar a especificidade dos resultados. Quatro equinos provindos da Antioquia apresentaram resultados positivos para anticorpos contra o vírus do Nilo Ocidental; entretanto não foram detectados anticorpos nos animas provindos do Meta. Estes resultados sugerem que o vírus do Nilo Ocidental tem se disseminado através da costa atlântica e está agora invadindo a região andina na Colômbia.