Kinesin family member 2A gates nociception.

Nociceptive axons undergo remodeling as they innervate their targets during development and in response to environmental insults and pathological conditions. How is nociceptive morphogenesis regulated? Here, we show that the microtubule destabilizer kinesin family member 2A (Kif2a) is a key regulator of nociceptive terminal structures and pain sensitivity. Ablation of Kif2a in sensory neurons causes hyperinnervation and hypersensitivity to noxious stimuli in young adult mice, whereas touch sensitivity and proprioception remain unaffected. Computational modeling predicts that structural remodeling is sufficient to explain the phenotypes. Furthermore, Kif2a deficiency triggers a transcriptional response comprising sustained upregulation of injury-related genes and homeostatic downregulation of highly specific channels and receptors at the late stage. The latter effect can be predicted to relieve the hyperexcitability of nociceptive neurons, despite persisting morphological aberrations, and indeed correlates with the resolution of pain hypersensitivity. Overall, we reveal a critical control node defining nociceptive terminal structure, which is regulating nociception.

Modular and Distinct Plexin-A4/FARP2/Rac1 Signaling Controls Dendrite Morphogenesis.

Diverse neuronal populations with distinct cellular morphologies coordinate the complex function of the nervous system. Establishment of distinct neuronal morphologies critically depends on signaling pathways that control axonal and dendritic development. The Sema3A-Nrp1/PlxnA4 signaling pathway promotes cortical neuron basal dendrite arborization but also repels axons. However, the downstream signaling components underlying these disparate functions of Sema3A signaling are unclear. Using the novel PlxnA4KRK-AAA knock-in male and female mice, generated by CRISPR/cas9, we show here that the KRK motif in the PlxnA4 cytoplasmic domain is required for Sema3A-mediated cortical neuron dendritic elaboration but is dispensable for inhibitory axon guidance. The RhoGEF FARP2, which binds to the KRK motif, shows identical functional specificity as the KRK motif in the PlxnA4 receptor. We find that Sema3A activates the small GTPase Rac1, and that Rac1 activity is required for dendrite elaboration but not axon growth cone collapse. This work identifies a novel Sema3A-Nrp1/PlxnA4/FARP2/Rac1 signaling pathway that specifically controls dendritic morphogenesis but is dispensable for repulsive guidance events. Overall, our results demonstrate that the divergent signaling output from multifunctional receptor complexes critically depends on distinct signaling motifs, highlighting the modular nature of guidance cue receptors and its potential to regulate diverse cellular responses.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The proper formation of axonal and dendritic morphologies is crucial for the precise wiring of the nervous system that ultimately leads to the generation of complex functions in an organism. The Semaphorin3A-Neuropilin1/Plexin-A4 signaling pathway has been shown to have multiple key roles in neurodevelopment, from axon repulsion to dendrite elaboration. This study demonstrates that three specific amino acids, the KRK motif within the Plexin-A4 receptor cytoplasmic domain, are required to coordinate the downstream signaling molecules to promote Sema3A-mediated cortical neuron dendritic elaboration, but not inhibitory axon guidance. Our results unravel a novel Semaphorin3A-Plexin-A4 downstream signaling pathway and shed light on how the disparate functions of axon guidance and dendritic morphogenesis are accomplished by the same extracellular ligand in vivo.

Regulation of axonal morphogenesis by the mitochondrial protein Efhd1.

During development, neurons adjust their energy balance to meet the high demands of robust axonal growth and branching. The mechanisms that regulate this tuning are largely unknown. Here, we show that sensory neurons lacking liver kinase B1 (Lkb1), a master regulator of energy homeostasis, exhibit impaired axonal growth and branching. Biochemical analysis of these neurons revealed reduction in axonal ATP levels, whereas transcriptome analysis uncovered down-regulation of Efhd1 (EF-hand domain family member D1), a mitochondrial Ca2+-binding protein. Genetic ablation of Efhd1 in mice resulted in reduced axonal morphogenesis as well as enhanced neuronal death. Strikingly, this ablation causes mitochondrial dysfunction and a decrease in axonal ATP levels. Moreover, Efhd1 KO sensory neurons display shortened mitochondria at the axonal growth cones, activation of the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)-Ulk (Unc-51-like autophagy-activating kinase 1) pathway and an increase in autophagic flux. Overall, this work uncovers a new mitochondrial regulator that is required for axonal morphogenesis.

Phosphatidylserine is a marker for axonal debris engulfment but its exposure can be decoupled from degeneration.

Apoptotic cells expose Phosphatidylserine (PS), that serves as an "eat me" signal for engulfing cells. Previous studies have shown that PS also marks degenerating axonsduring developmental pruning or in response to insults (Wallerian degeneration), but the pathways that control PS exposure on degenerating axons are largely unknown. Here, we used a series of in vitro assays to systematically explore the regulation of PS exposure during axonal degeneration. Our results show that PS exposure is regulated by the upstream activators of axonal pruning and Wallerian degeneration. However, our investigation of signaling further downstream revealed divergence between axon degeneration and PS exposure. Importantly, elevation of the axonal energetic status hindered PS exposure, while inhibition of mitochondrial activity caused PS exposure, without degeneration. Overall, our results suggest that the levels of PS on the outer axonal membrane can be dissociated from the degeneration process and that the axonal energetic status plays a key role in the regulation of PS exposure.

ADAM metalloproteases promote a developmental switch in responsiveness to the axonal repellant Sema3A.

During embryonic development, axons can gain and lose sensitivity to guidance cues, and this flexibility is essential for the correct wiring of the nervous system. Yet, the underlying molecular mechanisms are largely unknown. Here we show that receptor cleavage by ADAM (A Disintegrin And Metalloprotease) metalloproteases promotes murine sensory axons loss of responsiveness to the chemorepellant Sema3A. Genetic ablation of ADAM10 and ADAM17 disrupts the developmental downregulation of Neuropilin-1 (Nrp1), the receptor for Sema3A, in sensory axons. Moreover, this is correlated with gain of repulsive response to Sema3A. Overexpression of Nrp1 in neurons reverses axonal desensitization to Sema3A, but this is hampered in a mutant Nrp1 with high susceptibility to cleavage. Lastly, we detect guidance errors of proprioceptive axons in ADAM knockouts that are consistent with enhanced response to Sema3A. Our results provide the first evidence for involvement of ADAMs in regulating developmental switch in responsiveness to axonal guidance cues.

Distinct cytoplasmic domains in Plexin-A4 mediate diverse responses to semaphorin 3A in developing mammalian neurons.

Guidance receptor signaling is crucial for neural circuit formation and elicits diverse cellular events in specific neurons. We found that signaling from the guidance cue semaphorin 3A diverged through distinct cytoplasmic domains in its receptor Plexin-A4 to promote disparate cellular behavior in different neuronal cell types. Plexin-A4 has three main cytoplasmic domains--C1, Hinge/RBD, and C2--and interacts with family members of the Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factor FARP proteins. We show that growth cone collapse occurred in Plexin-A4-deficient dorsal root ganglion sensory neurons reconstituted with Plexin-A4 containing either the Hinge/RBD or C2 domain, whereas both of the Hinge/RBD and C1 domains were required for dendritic arborization in cortical neurons. Although knockdown studies indicated that both the collapse and arborization responses involved FARP2, mutations in the cytoplasmic region of Plexin-A4 that reduced its interaction with FARP2 strongly inhibited semaphorin 3A-induced dendritic branching but not growth cone collapse, suggesting that different degrees of interaction are required for the two responses or that developing axons have an indirect path to FARP2 activation. Thus, our study provided insights into the multifunctionality of guidance receptors, in particular showing that the semaphorin 3A signal diverges through specific functions of the modular domains of Plexin-A4.

Cis interaction between Semaphorin6A and Plexin-A4 modulates the repulsive response to Sema6A.

The correct navigation of axons to their targets depends on guidance molecules in the extra-cellular environment. Differential responsiveness to a particular guidance cue is largely an outcome of disparity in the expression of its receptors on the reacting axons. Here, we show that the differential responsiveness of sympathetic and sensory neurons to the transmembrane Semaphorin Sema6A is mainly determined by its co-expression in the responding neurons. Both sympathetic and sensory neurons express the Sema6A receptor Plexin-A4, but only sympathetic neurons respond to it. The expression of Sema6A counteracts this responsiveness and is detected only in sensory neurons. Remarkably, sensory neurons that lack Sema6A gain sensitivity to it in a Plexin-A4-dependent manner. Using heterologus systems, we show that the co-expression of Sema6A and Plexin-A4 hinders the binding of exogenous ligand, suggesting that a Sema6A-Plexin-A4 cis interaction serves as an inhibitory mechanism. Finally, we provide evidence for differential modes of interaction in cis versus in trans. Thus, co-expression of a transmembrane cue together with its receptor can serve as a guidance response modulator.

Three-dimensional structure of a halotolerant algal carbonic anhydrase predicts halotolerance of a mammalian homolog.

Protein molecular adaptation to drastically shifting salinities was studied in dCA II, an alpha-type carbonic anhydrase (EC 4.2.1.1) from the exceptionally salt-tolerant unicellular green alga Dunaliella salina. The salt-inducible, extracellular dCA II is highly salt-tolerant and thus differs from its mesophilic homologs. The crystal structure of dCA II, determined at 1.86-A resolution, is globally similar to other alpha-type carbonic anhydrases except for two extended alpha-helices and an added Na-binding loop. Its unusual electrostatic properties include a uniformly negative surface electrostatic potential of lower magnitude than that observed in the highly acidic halophilic proteins and an exceptionally low positive potential at a site adjoining the catalytic Zn(2+) compared with mesophilic homologs. The halotolerant dCA II also differs from typical halophilic proteins in retaining conformational stability and solubility in low to high salt concentrations. The crucial role of electrostatic features in dCA II halotolerance is strongly supported by the ability to predict the unanticipated halotolerance of the murine CA XIV isozyme, which was confirmed biochemically. A proposal for the functional significance of the halotolerance of CA XIV in the kidney is presented.

Natural protein engineering: a uniquely salt-tolerant, but not halophilic, alpha-type carbonic anhydrase from algae proliferating in low- to hyper-saline environments.

Dunaliella salina is a unicellular green alga thriving in environments ranging from fresh water to hyper-saline lakes, such as the Dead Sea. An unusual, internally duplicated, 60 kDa alpha-type carbonic anhydrase (dCA I), located on the surface of this alga, is expected to function over a broad range of salinities. It would therefore differ from other carbonic anhydrases that already lose activity at low salinities and also from halophilic proteins that require high salinities for conformational stability. Enzymatic analyses indeed indicated that dCA I retained activity at salt concentrations ranging from low salt to at least 1.5 M NaCl or KCl for CO(2) hydration, 2.0 M NaCl for esterase activity and 0.5 M for bicarbonate dehydration. Although measurements at higher salinities were constrained by the interference of salt in the respective assayed reactions, activity was noticeable even at 4.0 M NaCl. Comparisons of the internally duplicated dCA I to single-domain derivatives indicated that inter-domain interactions played a decisive role in the stability, activity, salt tolerance and pH responses of dCA I. Hence dCA I is a uniquely salt- tolerant protein, retaining an active conformation over a large range of salinities and, as a Zn metalloenzyme, largely immune to the specific inhibitory effects of anions. Its unique features make dCA I a useful model to understand the physico-chemical basis of halotolerance and protein-salt interactions in general.

Identification, cDNA cloning, expression, crystallization and preliminary X-ray analysis of an exceptionally halotolerant carbonic anhydrase from Dunaliella salina.

An extracellular alpha-type carbonic anhydrase (dCAII) from the salt-tolerant alga Dunaliella salina differs from its mesophilic counterparts in remaining active from zero to multimolar salt concentrations. To gain insight into the outstanding salt tolerance of dCAII, the enzyme was functionally overexpressed in Escherichia coli, purified by affinity chromatography and crystallized by the hanging-drop method. The crystals belonged to space group P2(1), with unit-cell parameters a = 47.0, b = 119.9, c = 58.5 A, beta = 94.2 degrees. Data from a single crystal were collected to 2.4 A resolution under cryogenic conditions (120 K) using an R-AXIS IV(++) detector mounted on a Rigaku RU-H3R rotating-anode generator. The asymmetric unit contains two molecules of the protein, which corresponds to V(M) = 2.65 A(3) Da(-1) and a solvent content of 52.7%.

An unusual halotolerant alpha-type carbonic anhydrase from the alga Dunaliella salina functionally expressed in Escherichia coli.

A 60-kDa, salt-inducible, internally duplicated alpha-type carbonic anhydrase (Dca) is associated with the plasma membrane of the extremely salt-tolerant, unicellular, green alga Dunaliella salina. Unlike other carbonic anhydrases, Dca remains active over a very broad range of salinities (0-4M NaCl), thus representing a novel type of extremely halotolerant enzyme. To elucidate the structural principles of halotolerance, structure-function investigations of Dca have been initiated. Such studies require considerable amounts of the enzyme, and hence, large-scale algal cultivation. Furthermore, the purified enzyme is often contaminated with other, co-purifying algal carbonic anhydrases. Expression in heterologous systems offers a means to produce, and subsequently purify, sufficiently large amounts of Dca required for activity and structural studies. Attempts to over-express Dca in the Escherichia coli BL21(DE3)pLysS strain, after optimizing various expression parameters, produced soluble, but weakly active protein, composed of fully reduced and variably -S-S- cross-linked chains (each of the Dca repeats contains a pair of cysteine residues, presumably forming a disulfide bond). However, when the E. coli Origami B(DE3)pLysS strain was used as a host, a functionally active enzyme with proper disulfide bonds was formed in good yield. Affinity-purified recombinant Dca resembled the native enzyme from D. salina in activity and salt tolerance. Hence, this expression system offers a means of pursuing detailed studies of this extraordinary protein using biochemical, biophysical, and crystallographic approaches.

Salt induction of fatty acid elongase and membrane lipid modifications in the extreme halotolerant alga Dunaliella salina.

In studies of the outstanding salt tolerance of the unicellular green alga Dunaliella salina, we isolated a cDNA for a salt-inducible mRNA encoding a protein homologous to plant beta-ketoacyl-coenzyme A (CoA) synthases (Kcs). These microsomal enzymes catalyze the condensation of malonyl-CoA with acyl-CoA, the first and rate-limiting step in fatty acid elongation. Kcs activity, localized to a D. salina microsomal fraction, increased in cells transferred from 0.5 to 3.5 M NaCl, as did the level of the kcs mRNA. The function of the kcs gene product was directly demonstrated by the condensing activity exhibited by Escherichia coli cells expressing the kcs cDNA. The effect of salinity on kcs expression in D. salina suggested the possibility that salt adaptation entailed modifications in the fatty acid composition of algal membranes. Lipid analyses indicated that microsomes, but not plasma membranes or thylakoids, from cells grown in 3.5 M NaCl contained a considerably higher ratio of C18 (mostly unsaturated) to C16 (mostly saturated) fatty acids compared with cells grown in 0.5 M salt. Thus, the salt-inducible Kcs, jointly with fatty acid desaturases, may play a role in adapting intracellular membrane compartments to function in the high internal glycerol concentrations balancing the external osmotic pressure.