Estimulación eléctrica nerviosa transcutánea como tratamiento de la espasticidad: una revisión sistemática / Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation for spasticity: A systematic review

Introducción: Aunque tradicionalmente la estimulación eléctrica nerviosa transcutánea (TENS) se ha utilizado como tratamiento del dolor, algunos estudios han evidenciado una reducción de la espasticidad tras la aplicación de TENS. Sin embargo, su uso en la clínica aún está muy poco extendido. El objetivo de este estudio consiste en determinar si la estimulación TENS aplicada en pacientes con afectación neurológica resulta efectiva para tratar la espasticidad o alguno de sus síntomas asociados. Además, se pretende determinar los parámetros de estimulación que mayor efecto producen sobre las diferentes variables asociadas a la espasticidad. Desarrollo: Se buscaron ensayos clínicos aleatorizados relacionados con TENS y espasticidad encontrados en las bases de datos PubMed, PEDro y Cochrane con anterioridad al 12 de mayo del 2015. Dos revisores independientes realizaron las búsquedas y seleccionaron los estudios en función de los criterios de inclusión previamente establecidos. En la búsqueda inicial se encontraron un total de 96 artículos, de los cuales 86 fueron excluidos y 10 fueron seleccionados para analizar en esta revisión. Se presentan resultados en 207 sujetos con accidente cerebrovascular, 84 con esclerosis múltiple y 39 con lesión medular. Conclusiones: Debido a los resultados observados, su bajo coste, facilidad de aplicación y ausencia de efectos adversos, se recomienda la estimulación mediante TENS como tratamiento de la espasticidad. Sin embargo, la gran variabilidad existente entre las formas de estimulación, los parámetros utilizados y las variables analizadas, dificultan el análisis y la comparación de resultados que puedan determinar la eficacia objetiva de la técnica y la optimización de parámetros

Introduction: Although transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) has traditionally been used to treat pain, some studies have observed decreased spasticity after use of this technique. However, its use in clinical practice is still limited. Our purpose was twofold: to determine whether TENS is effective for treating spasticity or associated symptoms in patients with neurological involvement, and to determine which stimulation parameters exert the greatest effect on variables associated with spasticity. Development: Two independent reviewers used PubMed, PEDro, and Cochrane databases to search for randomised clinical trials addressing TENS and spasticity published before 12 May 2015, and selected the articles that met the inclusion criteria. Of the initial 96 articles, 86 were excluded. The remaining 10 articles present results from 207 patients with a cerebrovascular accident, 84 with multiple sclerosis, and 39 with spinal cord lesions. Conclusions: In light of our results, we recommend TENS as a treatment for spasticity due to its low cost, ease of use, and absence of adverse reactions. However, the great variability in the types of stimulation used in the studies, and the differences in parameters and variables, make it difficult to assess and compare any results that might objectively determine the effectiveness of this technique and show how to optimise parameters

Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation for spasticity: A systematic review. / Estimulación eléctrica nerviosa transcutánea como tratamiento de la espasticidad: una revisión sistemática.

INTRODUCTION: Although transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) has traditionally been used to treat pain, some studies have observed decreased spasticity after use of this technique. However, its use in clinical practice is still limited. Our purpose was twofold: to determine whether TENS is effective for treating spasticity or associated symptoms in patients with neurological involvement, and to determine which stimulation parameters exert the greatest effect on variables associated with spasticity. DEVELOPMENT: Two independent reviewers used PubMed, PEDro, and Cochrane databases to search for randomised clinical trials addressing TENS and spasticity published before 12 May 2015, and selected the articles that met the inclusion criteria. Of the initial 96 articles, 86 were excluded. The remaining 10 articles present results from 207 patients with a cerebrovascular accident, 84 with multiple sclerosis, and 39 with spinal cord lesions. CONCLUSIONS: In light of our results, we recommend TENS as a treatment for spasticity due to its low cost, ease of use, and absence of adverse reactions. However, the great variability in the types of stimulation used in the studies, and the differences in parameters and variables, make it difficult to assess and compare any results that might objectively determine the effectiveness of this technique and show how to optimise parameters.

Myotonometry as a measure to detect myofascial trigger points: an inter-rater reliability study.

OBJECTIVE: Several diagnostic methods have been used in the identification of mechanical properties of skeletal muscle, including myofascial trigger points (MTrPs), however, they are not suitable for daily clinical use. Myotonometry offers an easy noninvasive alternative to assess these muscle properties. Nevertheless, previous research has not yet studied the mechanical properties of MTrPs by myotonometry. The purposes of this study were (1) to analyze the differences in the mechanical properties between latent MTrPs and their taut bands by myotonometry, (2) to investigate the inter-rater reproducibility of myotonometric measurements, and (3) to examine the association between myotonometry and passive isokinetic dynamometry. APPROACH: Fifty individuals (58% male; age 24.6 ± 7.9 years) with a latent medial MTrP of the right soleus muscle participated. The mechanical properties of this MTrP area of soleus muscle and its taut band area were measured using a myotonometer (MyotonPRO). Additionally, passive resistive torque and extensibility of triceps surae muscle were assessed using a Kin-Com dynamometer. MAIN RESULTS: Statistical analysis indicated higher values for the stiffness parameter in the taut band with respect to the MTrP (P < 0.05). The inter-rater reliability of the myotonometric measurements was good for all variables (ICC3,1 > 0.75). The standard error of measurement (SEM) and minimal detectable difference (MDD) indicated a small measurement error for frequency and stiffness variables (SEM% < 10%; MDD95% < 20%). Significant fair correlations between myotonometric parameters and passive isokinetic parameters ranged from -0.29 to 0.48 (P < 0.05). SIGNIFICANCE: The myotonometer was demonstrated to be a reliable tool and was able to quantify differences in the mechanical properties of myofascial tissues. The potential of this method for the assessment of myofascial pain syndromes requires further investigation.

Neuromodulación transcraneal y fisioterapia: corriente directa y estimulación magnética / Transcranial neuromodulation and physiotherapy: direct current and magnetic stimulation

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Cuantificación de la espasticidad autopercibida. Revisión de escalas y cuestionarios / Quantification of self-perceived spasticty. Review of scales and questionnaires

A pesar de la gran cantidad de herramientas disponibles para evaluar la espasticidad, su fluctuación durante el día, la interferencia en la vida diaria y la falta de correlación entre los diferentes síntomas, fundamentan la cuantificación de la percepción del paciente de su propia espasticidad. Esta revisión pretende analizar los principales métodos de valoración de la espasticidad autopercibida por el paciente con enfermedad neurológica, descritos en la literatura científica, y realizar una descripción y análisis crítico de sus ventajas y limitaciones. Tras analizar las principales escalas de valoración de la espasticidad percibida, se concluye que existen pocas herramientas de cuantificación de la espasticidad que contemplen la percepción del paciente y, comparadas con las escalas de evaluación clínica tradicionales, han sido poco utilizadas en la literatura científica. Sin embargo, para su correcta valoración, es fundamental incluir al menos una medición que valore la autopercepción de espasticidad (AU)

Several tools are available to evaluate spasticity. However, because of factors such as fluctuation within the day, interference with daily activities and the absence of correlation among spasticity symptoms, there is a need for tools that measure self-perceived spasticity. This review aims to analyse the main methods for the evaluation of self-perceived spasticity by individuals with neurologic disorders and to discuss their advantages and disadvantages. Analysis of the main scales of self-perceived spasticity revealed that there are few spasticity measurement tools that include the patient's subjective point of view and that very few are used in the scientific literature compared with traditional clinical spasticity scales. However, for a comprehensive evaluation of spasticity, it is crucial to include at least one scale that assesses self-perceived spasticity (AU)

Modular control of gait after incomplete spinal cord injury: differences between sides.

STUDY DESIGN: This is an analytical descriptive study. OBJECTIVES: The main goal of this study was to compare the modular organization of bilateral lower limb control in incomplete spinal cord injury (iSCI) patients during overground walking, using muscle synergies analysis. The secondary goal was to determine whether the similarity between the patients and control group correlate with clinical indicators of walking performance. SETTING: This study was conducted in National Hospital for Spinal Cord Injury (Toledo, Spain). METHODS: Eight iSCI patients and eight healthy subjects completed 10 walking trials at matched speed. For each trial, three-dimensional motion analysis and surface electromyography (sEMG) analysis of seven leg muscles from both limbs were performed. Muscle synergies were extracted from sEMG signals using a non-negative matrix factorization algorithm. The optimal number of synergies has been defined as the minimum number needed to obtain variability accounted for (VAF) ⩾90%. RESULTS: When compared with healthy references, iSCI patients showed fewer muscle synergies in the most affected side and, in both sides, significant differences in the composition of synergy 2. The degree of similarity of these variables with the healthy reference, together with the composition of synergy 3 of the most affected side, presented significant correlations (P<0.05) with walking performance. CONCLUSION: The analysis of muscle synergies shows potential to detect differences between the two sides in patients with iSCI. Specifically, the VAF may constitute a new neurophysiological metric to assess and monitor patients' condition throughout the gait recovery process.

Abnormal cutaneous flexor reflex activity during controlled isometric plantarflexion in human spinal cord injury spasticity syndrome.

STUDY DESIGN: Although abnormal cutaneous reflex (CR) activity has been identified during gait after incomplete spinal cord injury (SCI), this activity has not been directly compared in subjects with and without the spasticity syndrome. OBJECTIVES: Characterisation of CR activity during controlled rest and 'ramp and hold' phases of controlled plantarflexion in subjects with and without the SCI spasticity syndrome. DESIGN: Transverse descriptive study with non-parametric group analysis. SETTING: SCI rehabilitation hospital. METHODS: Tibialis Anterior (TA) reflexes were evoked by innocuous cutaneous plantar sole stimulation during rest and ramp and hold phases of plantarflexion torque in non-injured subjects (n=10) and after SCI with (n=9) and without (n=10) hypertonia and/or involuntary spasm activity. Integrated TA reflex responses were analysed as total (50-300 ms) or short (50-200 ms) and long-latency (200-300 ms) activity. RESULTS: Total and long-latency TA activity was inhibited in non-injured subjects and the SCI group without the spasticity syndrome during plantarflexion torque but not in the SCI spasticity group. Furthermore, loss of TA reflex inhibition during plantarflexion correlated with time after SCI (ρ=0.79, P=0.009). Moreover, TA reflex activity inversely correlated with maximum plantarflexion torque in the spasticity group (ρ=-0.75, P=0.02), despite similar non-reflex TA electromyographic activity during plantarflexion after SCI in subjects with (0.11, 0.08-0.13 mV) or without the spasticity syndrome (0.09, 0.07-0.12 mV). CONCLUSIONS: This reflex testing procedure supports previously published evidence for abnormal CR activity after SCI and may characterise the progressive disinhibition of TA reflex activity during controlled plantarflexion in subjects diagnosed with the spasticity syndrome.

Spinal cord compression injury in lysophosphatidic acid 1 receptor-null mice promotes maladaptive pronociceptive descending control.

BACKGROUND: Although activation of the lysophosphatidic acid receptor 1 (LPA1) is known to mediate pronociceptive effects in peripheral pain models, the role of this receptor in the modulation of spinal nociception following spinal cord injury (SCI) is unknown. AIM: In this study, LPA1 regulation of spinal excitability mediated by supraspinal descending antinociceptive control systems was assessed following SCI in both wild-type (WT) and maLPA1-null receptor mice. METHODS: The effect of a T8 spinal compression in WT and maLPA1-null mice was assessed up to 1 month after SCI using histological, immunohistochemical and behavioural techniques analysis including electrophysiological recording of noxious toes-Tibialis Anterior (TA) stimulus-response reflex activity. The effect of a T3 paraspinal transcutaneous electrical conditioning stimulus on TA noxious reflex temporal summation was also assessed. RESULTS: Histological analysis demonstrated greater dorsolateral funiculus damage after SCI in maLPA1-null mice, without a change in the stimulus-response function of the TA noxious reflex when compared to WT mice. While T3 conditioning stimulation in the WT group inhibited noxious TA reflex temporal summation after SCI, this stimulus strongly excited TA reflex temporal summation in maLPA1-null mice. The functional switch from descending inhibition to maladaptive facilitation of central excitability of spinal nociception demonstrated in maLPA1-null mice after SCI was unrelated to a general change in reflex activity. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that the LPA1 receptor is necessary for inhibition of temporal summation of noxious reflex activity, partly mediated via long-tract descending modulatory systems acting at the spinal level.

Tono muscular normal: consideraciones generales e importancia en rehabilitación / Normal muscle tone: General considerations and importance in rehabilitation

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Oral 2-hydroxyoleic acid inhibits reflex hypersensitivity and open-field-induced anxiety after spared nerve injury.

BACKGROUND: Recently, fatty acids have been shown to modulate sensory function in animal models of neuropathic pain. In this study, the antinociceptive effect of 2-hydroxyoleic acid (2-OHOA) was assessed following spared nerve injury (SNI) with reflex and cerebrally mediated behavioural responses. METHODS: Initial antinociceptive behavioural screening of daily administration of 2-OHOA (400 mg/kg, p.o.) was assessed in Wistar rats by measuring hindlimb reflex hypersensitivity to von Frey and thermal plate stimulation up to 7 days after SNI, while its modulatory effect on lumbar spinal dorsal horn microglia reactivity was assessed with OX-42 immunohistochemistry. In vitro the effect of 2-OHOA (120 µM) on cyclooxygenase protein expression (COX-2/COX-1 ratio) in lipopolysaccharide-activated macrophage cells was tested with Western blot analysis. Finally, the effects of 2-OHOA treatment on the place escape aversion paradigm (PEAP) and the open-field-induced anxiety test were tested at 21 days following nerve injury compared with vehicle-treated sham and pregabalin-SNI (30 mg/kg, p.o.) control groups. RESULTS: Oral 2-OHOA significantly reduced ipsilateral mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity up to 7 days after SNI. Additionally 2-OHOA decreased the COX-2/COX-1 ratio in lipopolysaccharide-activated macrophage cells and OX-42 expression within the ipsilateral lumbar spinal dorsal horn 7 days after SNI. 2-OHOA significantly restored inner-zone exploration in the open-field test compared with the vehicle-treated sham group at 21 days after SNI. CONCLUSIONS: Oral administration of the modified omega 9 fatty acid, 2-OHOA, mediates antinociception and prevents open-field-induced anxiety in the SNI model in Wistar rats, which is mediated by an inhibition of spinal dorsal horn microglia activation.

Impact of specific symptoms of spasticity on voluntary lower limb muscle function, gait and daily activities during subacute and chronic spinal cord injury.

BACKGROUND: Although the spasticity syndrome is an important sensorimotor disorder, the impact of grade of lower limb muscle hypertonia, spasm and clonus activity on voluntary muscle function, gait and daily activities has not been systematically analysed during subacute and chronic spinal cord injury (SCI). OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of spasticity signs and symptoms during SCI, and to assess their impact on motor function and activities. METHODS: A descriptive transverse study of sixty-six subjects with SCI was performed by assessing injury characteristics, spasticity (modified Ashworth scale, Penn scale, SCATS scale) and motor function (lower limb manual muscle scores, WISCI II, spinal cord injury spasticity evaluation tool). RESULTS: Most subjects with the spasticity syndrome presented lower limb hypertonia and spasms during both subacute and chronic SCI, interfering with daily life activities. Subjects with incomplete SCI and hypertonia revealed a loss of voluntary flexor muscle activity, while extensors spasms contributed strongly to loss of gait function. The Penn spasms scale no correlated with muscle function or gait. CONCLUSIONS: Specific diagnosis of spasm activity during subacute SCI, and its impact on lower limb voluntary muscle activity, gait function and daily activities, is required to develop a more effective neurorehabilitation treatment strategy.

Sensory function after cavernous haemangioma: a case report of thermal hypersensitivity at and below an incomplete spinal cord injury.

STUDY DESIGN: Case report of a 42-year-old woman with non-evoked pain diagnosed with a cavernous C7-Th6 spinal haemangioma. OBJECTIVES: To assess the effect of intramedullary haemorrhage (IH) on nociception and neuropathic pain (NP) at and below an incomplete spinal cord injury (SCI). SETTING: Sensorimotor Function Group, Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos de Toledo (HNPT). METHODS: T2*-susceptibility weighted image (SWI) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of spinal haemosiderin and a complete pain history were performed 8 months following initial dysaesthesia complaint. Thermal pain thresholds were assessed with short 1 s stimuli, while evidence for central sensitization was obtained with psychophysical electronic Visual Analogue Scale rating of tonic 10 s 3 °C and 48 °C stimuli, applied at and below the IH. Control data were obtained from 10 healthy volunteers recruited from the HNPT. RESULTS: Non-evoked pain was present within the Th6 dermatome and lower legs. T2*-SWI MRI imaging detected extensive haemosiderin-rich IH (C7-Th5/6 spinal level). Cold allodynia was detected below the IH (left L5 dermatome) with short thermal stimuli. Tonic thermal stimuli applied to the Th6, Th10 and C7 dermatomes revealed widespread heat and cold allodynia. CONCLUSION: NP was diagnosed following IH, corroborated by an increase in below-level cold pain threshold with at- and below-level cold and heat allodynia. Psychophysical evidence for at- and below-level SCI central sensitization was obtained with tonic thermal stimuli. Early detection of IH could lead to better management of specific NP symptoms, an appreciation of the role of haemorrhage as an aggravating SCI physical factor, and the identification of specific spinal pathophysiological pain mechanisms.

Modulación de reflejos cutáneos locales después de lesión medular: implicaciones para la neuro-rehabilitación / Local cutaneous reflex modulation following spinal cord injury: implications for neurorehabilitation

Objetivo: Evaluar el estado de las vías inhibitorias medulares mediante la modulación de reflejos cutáneos locales (RCL) y normalizar su actividad mediante la aplicación de un estímulo vibratorio. Material y método: Se dividió el estudio en dos fases, 1: voluntarios sanos, pacientes con lesión medular incompleta (LMi) sin espasticidad y pacientes con LMi con espasticidad. 2: voluntarios sanos y pacientes con LMi. En ambas fases los sujetos realizaron un ejercicio continuo de tobillo con fases de reposo (REP) y de flexión plantar concéntrica (CON) e isométrica (ISO 50). Se evocaron RCL durante las tres fases del ejercicio registrando la actividad electromiográfica en tibial anterior (TA) y gemelo medial (GM). En la fase 2 se añadió un estímulo vibratorio en la planta del pie para comprobar su efecto sobre los RCL. Resultados: Los voluntarios sanos y el grupo sin espasticidad mostraron una inhibición del TA en las fases de movimiento mientras que en el grupo con espasticidad no hubo modulación de la respuesta. Conclusiones: La aplicación de estímulos vibratorios podría influir sobre mecanismos inhibitorios medulares alterados en pacientes con LMi con espasticidad (AU)

Objetive: To evaluate the general state of inhibitory spinal pathways measuring local cutaneous reflexes (LCR) modulation and normalize this activity through the application of vibratory stimuli. Methods: This study was performed in two phases. In phase 1, healthy volunteers and patients with incomplete spinal cord injury (iSCI) with or without spasticity were examined. In phase 2, healthy volunteers and patients with iSCI were examined. In both studies subjects performed an ankle continuous exercise with phases of rest (REP), concentric (CON) and isometric (ISO 50) plantarflexion. RCL activity was evoked during the three specific movements measuring electromyographic activity in the Tibialis Anterior (TA) and Gastrocnemious Medialis (GM). In the second study phase, vibratory stimuli were applied to the plantar surface of the foot to measure the effect on RCL activity. Results: In the phase I study, both the healthy and the patient group without spasticity revealed an inhibition of TA RCL activity in both plantarflexion exercises, while no such modulation was observed in the spasticity group. Conclusions: : The application of vibratory stimuli could mediate in inhibitory spinal mechanisms altered in patients with iSCI with spasticity (AU)

Voluntary ankle flexor activity and adaptive coactivation gain is decreased by spasticity during subacute spinal cord injury.

Although spasticity has been defined as an increase in velocity-dependent stretch reflexes and muscle hypertonia during passive movement, the measurement of flexor muscle paresis may better characterize the negative impact of this syndrome on residual motor function following incomplete spinal cord injury (iSCI). In this longitudinal study Tibialis Anterior (TA) muscle paresis produced by a loss in maximal voluntary contraction during dorsiflexion and ankle flexor muscle coactivation during ramp-and-hold controlled plantarflexion was measured in ten patients during subacute iSCI. Tibialis Anterior activity was measured at approximately two-week intervals between 3-5 months following iSCI in subjects with or without spasticity, characterized by lower-limb muscle hypertonia and/or involuntary spasms. Following iSCI, maximal voluntary contraction ankle flexor activity was lower than that recorded from healthy subjects, and was further attenuated by the presence of spasticity. Furthermore the initially high percentage value of TA coactivation increased at 75% but not at 25% maximal voluntary torque (MVT), reflected by an increase in TA coactivation gain (75%/25% MVT) from 2.5+/-0.4 to 7.5+/-1.9, well above the control level of 2.9+/-0.2. In contrast contraction-dependent TA coactivation gain decreased from 2.4+/-0.3 to 1.4+/-0.1 during spasticity. In conclusion the adaptive increase in TA coactivation gain observed in this pilot study during subacute iSCI was also sensitive to the presence of spasticity. The successful early diagnosis and treatment of spasticity would be expected to further preserve and promote adaptive motor function during subacute iSCI neurorehabilitation.

Espasticidad después de la lesión medular: revisión de los mecanismos fisiopatológicos, técnicas de diagnóstico y tratamientos fisioterapéuticos actuales / Spasticity after a spinal cord injury: Review of the pathophysiology mechanisms, diagnostic techniques and current physiotherapy treatments

La espasticidad es un trastorno sensitivomotor que desarrollan alrededor del 70% de los pacientes con lesión medular. Principalmente, se caracteriza por el incremento de reflejos tónicos, el aumento del tono muscular y la presencia de espasmos. Aunque su fisiopatología no está claramente definida, se apunta sobre todo por una disminución de los mecanismos de inhibición neuronal a nivel medular, tanto en las vías descendentes como en los circuitos moduladores específicos a nivel segmentario, además de cambios en las propiedades intrínsecas de la motoneurona y en la mecánica muscular. La fisioterapia es la primera opción de tratamiento y desempeña un valioso papel en el abordaje de esta patología. Esta revisión pretende aportar al fisioterapeuta información actualizada acerca de los mecanismos fisiopatológicos asociados a la espasticidad, los métodos de valoración existentes y las técnicas fisioterapéuticas disponibles para su tratamiento (AU)

Spasticity is a sensorimotor disorder that develops in about 70% of patients with spinal cord injury. Spasticity is mainly defined as an increase in tonic reflexes, an increase in muscle tone and presence of spasms. Although its pathophysiology has not been clearly defined, it is believed to be caused by a reduction in spinal neuronal inhibition mechanisms, associated with descending pathways or with specific segmental modulatory circuits in addition to changes in the intrinsic motorneuron and passive muscle properties. Physiotherapy is the first treatment option and plays an important role in the management of this neuropathology. The purpose of this review is to provide the therapists with up-dated current information regarding the pathophysiological mechanisms associated with spasticity, existing diagnostic methods and the available physiotherapeutic techniques for its management (AU)