Declining Long-term Risk of Adverse Events after First-time Community-presenting Venous Thromboembolism: The Population-based Worcester VTE Study (1999 to 2009).

INTRODUCTION: Contemporary trends in health-care delivery are shifting the management of venous thromboembolism (VTE) events (deep vein thrombosis [DVT] and/or pulmonary embolism [PE]) from the hospital to the community, which may have implications for its prevention, treatment, and outcomes. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Population-based surveillance study monitoring trends in clinical epidemiology among residents of the Worcester, Massachusetts, metropolitan statistical area (WMSA) diagnosed with an acute VTE in all 12 WMSA hospitals. Patients were followed for up to 3 years after their index event. Total of 2334 WMSA residents diagnosed with first-time community-presenting VTE (occurring in an ambulatory setting or diagnosed within 24 hours of hospitalization) from 1999 through 2009. RESULTS: While PE patients were consistently admitted to the hospital for treatment over time, the proportion diagnosed with DVT-alone admitted to the hospital decreased from 67% in 1999 to 37% in 2009 (p value for trend <0.001). Among hospitalized patients, the mean length of stay decreased from 5.6 to 4.8 days (p value for trend <0.001). Between 1999 and 2009, treatment of VTE shifted from warfarin and unfractionated heparin towards use of low-molecular-weight heparins and newer anticoagulants; also, 3-year cumulative event rates decreased for all-cause mortality (41-26%), major bleeding (12-6%), and recurrent VTE (17-9%). CONCLUSIONS: A decade of change in VTE management was accompanied by improved long-term outcomes. However, rates of adverse events remained fairly high in our population-based surveillance study, implying that new risk-assessment tools to identify individuals at increased risk for developing major adverse outcomes over the long term are needed.

The Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events, 1999 to 2009--GRACE.

The aim of GRACE was to provide a large multinational registry of the full spectrum of patients with acute coronary syndromes (ACS) in order to define patient characteristics and outcomes and derive predictive risk scores. The study was designed and administered by an independent steering committee; data analyses were performed under the guidance of the steering committee at the Center for Outcomes Research of the University of Massachusetts. Regular feedback regarding local, regional and international guideline and performance measures was provided to individual hospitals and clusters of hospitals. Regional and international benchmark data were available to all sites. Main GRACE involved 123 hospitals in 14 countries in North and South America, Europe, Australia and New Zealand. GRACE2 (Expanded GRACE) comprised 154 hospitals in Europe, North and South America, Asia, Australasia and China. Continuous recruitment and follow-up took place between 1999 and 2009. The first 10 -20 patients per site (depending on hospital size) were enrolled each month, resulting in the recruitment of 102 341 patients, who were categorized as having ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction, non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction or unstable angina. Standardized case report forms (datafax or electronic) were completed by trained study coordinators, and included fields relating to demographic factors, comorbid conditions, treatments and in-hospital and post-discharge (6-month) events. Blood sampling, genetic analyses and longer-term follow-up were undertaken in GRACE substudies. Prospective individual patient follow-up was carried out. All sites were audited locally; 10% of individual patient records were audited in a 2-year cycle. Less than 1% of 20 key baseline fields, and less than 1% of discharge diagnosis and discharge status data, were missing. Six-month follow-up was 85% complete. Publications and risk scores are available at http://www.outcome.org/grace. Proposals for specific analyses were considered, in competition, by an independent publications committee.

Six-month survival benefits associated with clinical guideline recommendations in acute coronary syndromes.

AIMS: The authors sought to define which guideline-advocated therapies are associated with the greatest benefit with respect to 6-month survival in patients hospitalised with an acute coronary syndrome (ACS). METHODS AND RESULTS: The authors conducted a nested case-control study of ACS patients within the Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events cohort between April 1999 and December 2007. The cases were ACS patients who survived to discharge but died within 6 months. The controls were patients who survived to 6 months, matched for ACS diagnosis, age and the Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events risk score. Rates of use of evidence-based medications and coronary interventions (angiography, percutaneous coronary intervention and coronary artery bypass graft surgery) were compared. Logistic regression including matched variables was used, and the attributable mortality from incomplete application of each therapy was calculated. A total of 1716 cases and 3432 controls were identified. Coronary artery bypass graft surgery and percutaneous coronary intervention were associated with the greatest 6-month survival benefit (OR for death 0.60 (95% CI 0.39 to 0.90) and 0.57 (0.48 to 0.72), respectively). Statins and clopidogrel provided the greatest independent pharmacologic benefit (ORs for death 0.85 (0.73 to 0.99) and 0.84 (0.72 to 0.99)) with lesser effects seen with other pharmacotherapies. CONCLUSIONS: A diminishing benefit associated with each additional ACS therapy is evident. These data may provide a rational basis for selecting between therapeutic options when compliance or cost is an issue.

Six-month survival benefits associated with clinical guideline recommendations in acute coronary syndromes

AIMS: The authors sought to define which guideline-advocated therapies are associated with the greatest benefit with respect to 6-month survival in patients hospitalised with an acute coronary syndrome (ACS).METHODS AND RESULTS: The authors conducted a nested case-control study of ACS patients within the Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events cohort between April 1999 and December 2007. The cases were ACS patients who survived to discharge but died within 6 months. The controls were patients who survived to 6 months, matched for ACS diagnosis, age and the Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events risk score. Rates of use of evidence-based medications and coronary interventions (angiography, percutaneous coronary intervention and coronary artery bypass graft surgery) were compared. Logistic regression including matched variables was used, and the attributable mortality from incomplete application of each therapy was calculated. A total of 1716 cases and 3432 controls were identified. Coronary artery bypass graft surgery and percutaneous coronary intervention were associated with the greatest 6-month survival benefit (OR for death 0.60 (95% CI 0.39 to 0.90) and 0.57 (0.48 to 0.72), respectively). Statins and clopidogrel provided the greatest independent pharmacologic benefit (ORs for death 0.85 (0.73 to 0.99) and 0.84 (0.72 to 0.99)) with lesser effects seen with other pharmacotherapies.CONCLUSIONS: A diminishing benefit associated with each additional ACS therapy is evident. These data may provide a rational basis for selecting between therapeutic options when compliance or cost is an issue.

Temporal trends in the use of invasive cardiac procedures for non-ST segment elevation acute coronary syndromes according to initial risk stratification.

BACKGROUND: Current guidelines support an early invasive strategy in the management of high-risk non-ST elevation acute coronary syndromes (NSTE-ACS). Although studies in the 1990s suggested that highrisk patients received less aggressive treatment, there are limited data on the contemporary management patterns of NSTE-ACS in Canada. OBJECTIVE: To examine the in-hospital use of coronary angiography and revascularization in relation to risk among less selected patients with NSTE-ACS. METHODS: Data from the prospective, multicentre Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events (main GRACE and expanded GRACE2) were used. Between June 1999 and September 2007, 7131 patients from across Canada with a final diagnosis of NSTE-ACS were included the study. The study population was stratified into low-, intermediate- and high-risk groups, based on their calculated GRACE risk score (a validated predictor of in-hospital mortality) and according to time of enrollment. RESULTS: While rates of in-hospital death and reinfarction were significantly (P<0.001) greater in higher-risk patients, the in-hospital use of cardiac catheterization in low- (64.7%), intermediate- (60.3%) and highrisk (42.3%) patients showed an inverse relationship (P<0.001). This trend persisted despite the increase in the overall rates of cardiac catheterization over time (47.9% in 1999 to 2003 versus 51.6% in 2004 to 2005 versus 63.8% in 2006 to 2007; P<0.001). After adjusting for confounders, intermediate-risk (adjusted OR 0.80 [95% CI 0.70 to 0.92], P=0.002) and high-risk (adjusted OR 0.38 [95% CI 0.29 to 0.48], P<0.001) patients remained less likely to undergo in-hospital cardiac catheterization. CONCLUSION: Despite the temporal increase in the use of invasive cardiac procedures, they remain paradoxically targeted toward low-risk patients with NSTE-ACS in contemporary practice. This treatment-risk paradox needs to be further addressed to maximize the benefits of invasive therapies in Canada.

Outcomes with the use of glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors in non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the characteristics, management, and outcomes of patients with non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes (NSTE ACS) who would have been eligible for inclusion in clinical trials of glycoprotein (GP) IIb/IIIa inhibitors with those of ineligible patients. DESIGN: Multinational, prospective, observational study (GRACE, Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events). SETTING: Patients hospitalised for a suspected acute coronary syndrome and enrolled in GRACE between April 1999 and December 2004. PATIENTS: 29 039 patients with NSTE ACS. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Characteristics and outcomes were compared for trial-eligible (75.0%) and trial-ineligible (25.0%) patients. RESULTS: GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors were administered to 20.0% of eligible and 15.3% of ineligible patients. Compared with eligible patients, ineligible patients who received GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors had significantly higher rates of hospital death (6.8% vs 3.7%) and major bleeding (4.9% vs 2.2%). After adjustment for their higher baseline risk, ineligible patients still experienced higher hospital death rates (adjusted odds ratio (OR) 1.60; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.01 to 2.39), but not higher bleeding rates, than the eligible group. Use of GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors was associated with a trend towards lower 6-month mortality in eligible (OR 0.86, 95% CI 0.72 to 1.02) and ineligible (OR 0.82, 95% CI 0.65 to 1.05) patients compared with those in whom this therapy was not used. CONCLUSIONS: GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors were markedly underused in the real-world population, irrespective of whether patients were trial-eligible or not. Despite the higher risk of ineligible patients, the benefits of GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors appear to be no less than in eligible patients.

Relationship of treatment delays and mortality in patients undergoing fibrinolysis and primary percutaneous coronary intervention. The Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events.

OBJECTIVE: Treatment delays may result in different clinical outcomes in patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) who receive fibrinolytic therapy vs primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). The aim of this analysis was to examine how treatment delays relate to 6-month mortality in reperfusion-treated patients enrolled in the Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events (GRACE). DESIGN: Prospective, observational cohort study. SETTING: 106 hospitals in 14 countries. PATIENTS: 3959 patients who presented with STEMI within 6 h of symptom onset and received reperfusion with either a fibrin-specific fibrinolytic drug or primary PCI. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: 6-month mortality. METHODS: Multivariable logistic regression was used to assess the relationship between outcomes and treatment delay separately in each cohort, with time modelled with a quadratic term after adjusting for covariates from the GRACE risk score. RESULTS: A total of 1786 (45.1%) patients received fibrinolytic therapy, and 2173 (54.9%) underwent primary PCI. After multivariable adjustment, longer treatment delays were associated with a higher 6-month mortality in both fibrinolytic therapy and primary PCI patients (p<0.001 for both cohorts). For patients who received fibrinolytic therapy, 6-month mortality increased by 0.30% per 10-min delay in door-to-needle time between 30 and 60 min compared with 0.18% per 10-min delay in door-to-balloon time between 90 and 150 min for patients undergoing primary PCI. CONCLUSIONS: Treatment delays in reperfusion therapy are associated with higher 6-month mortality, but this relationship may be even more critical in patients receiving fibrinolytic therapy.

Creatinine clearance and adverse hospital outcomes in patients with acute coronary syndromes: findings from the global registry of acute coronary events (GRACE).

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether creatinine clearance at the time of hospital admission is an independent predictor of hospital mortality and adverse outcomes in patients with acute coronary syndromes (ACS). DESIGN: A prospective multicentre observational study, GRACE (global registry of acute coronary events), of patients with the full spectrum of ACS. SETTING: Ninety four hospitals of varying size and capability in 14 countries across four continents. PATIENTS: 11 774 patients hospitalised with ACS, including ST and non-ST segment elevation acute myocardial infarction and unstable angina. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Demographic and clinical characteristics, medication use, and in-hospital outcomes were compared for patients with creatinine clearance rates of > 60 ml/min (normal and minimally impaired renal function), 30-60 ml/min (moderate renal dysfunction), and < 30 ml/min (severe renal dysfunction). RESULTS: Patients with moderate or severe renal dysfunction were older, were more likely to be women, and presented to participating hospitals with more comorbidities than those with normal or minimally impaired renal function. In comparison with patients with normal or minimally impaired renal function, patients with moderate renal dysfunction were twice as likely to die (odds ratio 2.09, 95% confidence interval 1.55 to 2.81) and those with severe renal dysfunction almost four times more likely to die (odds ratio 3.71, 95% confidence interval 2.57 to 5.37) after adjustment for other potentially confounding variables. The risk of major bleeding episodes increased as renal function worsened. CONCLUSION: In patients with ACS, creatinine clearance is an important independent predictor of hospital death and major bleeding. These data reinforce the importance of increased surveillance efforts and use of targeted intervention strategies in patients with acute coronary disease complicated by renal dysfunction.

Decade-long trends (1986 to 1997) in the medical treatment of patients with acute myocardial infarction: A community-wide perspective.

BACKGROUND: Although there are an increasing number and variety of medications available for the treatment of patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI), few data are available describing recent, and changes over time in, use of different cardiac medications in patients with AMI from a more generalizable, community-wide perspective. Moreover, it is unclear whether the demographic and clinical profile of patients receiving these agents is similar or varies according to the type of agent prescribed. METHODS AND RESULTS: The purpose of this study was to examine recent patterns and changes over a decade-long period (1986 to 1997) in the use of cardiac medications during the acute hospitalization and at the time of hospital discharge in metropolitan Worcester, Mass, residents (1990 census estimate, 437,000) hospitalized with confirmed AMI. There was a marked increase in the use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, aspirin, beta-blockers, lipid-lowering agents, and thrombolytic therapy between 1986 and 1997. The use of calcium antagonists, lidocaine, and other antiarrhythmic agents declined over this period. Similar trends were observed in the use of these agents in hospital survivors at the time of hospital discharge. Patient age, presence of comorbidities, and AMI-associated characteristics influenced the use of these therapies; sex differences in the use of several of these medications were also noted. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this population-based observational study provide insights into changing prescribing patterns in the hospital treatment of patients with AMI. Despite encouraging increases in the use of several of these agents, considerable opportunities for increased utilization remain.

Age and the utilization of cardiac catheterization following uncomplicated first acute myocardial infarction treated with thrombolytic therapy (The Second National Registry of Myocardial Infarction [NRMI-2]).

Considerable data indicates that patients <50 years of age have lower morbidity and mortality after acute myocardial infarction (AMI) than older patients. It has been demonstrated that use of routine cardiac catheterization and revascularization in younger patients with AMI and successful thrombolysis does not confer benefit compared with a more conservative approach. Despite this, it has been our impression that cardiac catheterization is frequently employed in younger patients with AMI. Patients with uncomplicated initial AMI treated with thrombolytic therapy in the Second National Registry of Myocardial Infarction (NRMI-2) between June 1994 and April 1998 were identified. Patients were categorized into 4 age strata for purposes of analysis. A total of 61,232 cases met our inclusion criteria. Cardiac catheterization was performed during hospitalization in 78% of patients after an uncomplicated initial AMI. Age was inversely associated with receipt of cardiac catheterization: 85% of those < or =49 years old underwent catheterization compared with 63% of those > or =70 years old. Regression analysis revealed that use of catheterization was 2.9 times greater (95% confidence intervals 2.7 to 3.2) in patients < or =49 years old compared with those > or =70 years old. Geographic location and payor status also strongly influenced utilization of this procedure. In conclusion, routine coronary angiography after uncomplicated AMI is extensively utilized in all age groups, particularly in those <50 years of age. The efficacy and cost effectiveness of this strategy in these patients has not yet been determined in clinical trials.

Temporal trends (1986-1997) in cholesterol level assessment and management practices in patients with acute myocardial infarction: a population-based perspective.

BACKGROUND: Elevated serum cholesterol levels are associated with increased risk for acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and adverse patient outcomes. It is unclear what proportion of patients have their serum cholesterol levels measured during hospitalization for AMI and are given hypolipidemic therapy. OBJECTIVE: To examine decade-long trends in measurement of serum cholesterol levels during hospitalization for AMI and use of hypolipidemic therapy. METHODS: Observational study of 5204 residents of the Worcester, Mass, metropolitan area hospitalized with validated AMI in all greater Worcester hospitals in seven 1-year periods from 1986 through 1997. RESULTS: Increases in the measurement of serum cholesterol levels during hospitalization for AMI were observed between 1986 and 1991, followed by a progressive decrease; only 24% of patients with AMI in 1997 underwent cholesterol level testing. Younger age, male sex, and absence of a history of cardiovascular disease were associated with an increased likelihood measurement of serum cholesterol levels. Although the relative use of hypolipidemic therapy increased significantly over time (0.4% in 1986 vs 10.7% in 1997), the absolute rate of use remained low. In patients with elevated serum cholesterol levels (>/=6.2 mmol/L [>/=240 mg/dL]), 1.9% received hypolipidemic therapy in 1986 and 36.6% in 1997. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest recent declines in the assessment of total cholesterol levels in patients hospitalized with AMI. Although the use of hypolipidemic therapy during hospitalization for AMI has increased over time, considerable room for improvement remains.

Twenty-two year (1975 to 1997) trends in the incidence, in-hospital and long-term case fatality rates from initial Q-wave and non-Q-wave myocardial infarction: a multi-hospital, community-wide perspective.

OBJECTIVES: The goal of this study was to examine long-term trends in the incidence, in-hospital and long-term mortality patterns in patients with an initial non-Q-wave myocardial infarction (NQWMI) as compared with those with an initial Q-wave myocardial infarction (QWMI). BACKGROUND: Limited data are available describing trends in the incidence and mortality from an initial QWMI and NQWMI from a multi-hospital community-wide perspective. METHODS: Our study was an observational study of 5,832 metropolitan Worcester, Massachusetts residents (1990 census = 437,000) hospitalized with validated initial acute MI in all greater Worcester hospitals during 11 annual periods between 1975 and 1997. RESULTS: The incidence of QWMI progressively decreased between 1975/78 (incidence rate = 171/100,000 population) and 1997 (101/100,000 population). In contrast, the incidence of NQWMI progressively increased between 1975/78 (62/100,000 population) and 1997 (131/100,000 population). Hospital death rates were 19.5% for patients with QWMI and 12.5% for those with NQWMI. After controlling for various covariates, patients with QWMI remained at significantly increased risk for hospital mortality (adjusted odds ratio = 1.63; 95% confidence interval: 1.35, 1.97). While the hospital mortality of QWMI has progressively declined over time (1975/78 = 24%; 1997 = 14%), the in-hospital mortality for NQWMI has remained the same (1975/78 = 12%; 1997 = 12%). These trends remained after adjusting for potentially confounding prognostic factors. The multivariable adjusted two-year mortality after hospital discharge declined over time for patients with QWMI and NQWMI. CONCLUSIONS: Despite impressive declines in the incidence, in-hospital and long-term mortality associated with QWMI, NQWMI is increasing in frequency and has the same in-hospital mortality now as it did 22 years ago.

The use of intra-aortic balloon counterpulsation in patients with cardiogenic shock complicating acute myocardial infarction: data from the National Registry of Myocardial Infarction 2.

BACKGROUND: Cardiogenic shock complicating acute myocardial infarction (AMI) remains the leading cause of death in patients hospitalized with AMI. Although several studies have demonstrated the importance of establishing and maintaining a patent infarct-related artery, it remains unclear as to whether intra-aortic balloon counterpulsation (IABP) provides incremental benefit to reperfusion therapy. The purpose of this study was to determine whether IABP use is associated with lower in-hospital mortality rates in patients with AMI complicated by cardiogenic shock in a large AMI registry. METHODS: We evaluated patients participating in the National Registry of Myocardial Infarction 2 who had cardiogenic shock at initial examination or in whom cardiogenic shock developed during hospitalization (n = 23,180). RESULTS: The mean age of patients in the study was 72 years, 54% were men, and the majority were white. The overall mortality rate in all patients who had cardiogenic shock or in whom cardiogenic shock developed was 70%. IABP was used in 7268 (31%) patients. IABP use was associated with a significant reduction in mortality rates in patients who received thrombolytic therapy (67% vs 49%) but was not associated with any benefit in patients treated with primary angioplasty (45% vs 47%). In a multivariate model, the use of IABP in conjunction with thrombolytic therapy decreased the odds of death by 18% (odds ratio, 0.82; 95% confidence interval, 0.72 to 0.93). CONCLUSIONS: Patients with AMI complicated by cardiogenic shock may have substantial benefit from IABP when used in combination with thrombolytic therapy.

Early clinical outcomes and routine management of patients with non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction: a nationwide perspective.

BACKGROUND: Myocardial infarction (MI) in the absence of electrocardiographic ST-segment elevation or new bundle branch block is the cause of hospitalization for a large and steadily increasing proportion of patients with acute ischemic chest pain. Despite its prevalence, the common demographic features, current hospital-based management, and short-term clinical outcome among patients with non-ST-segment elevation MI remain poorly defined. METHODS: A total of 183 113 patients with non-ST-segment elevation MI were identified in the National Registry of Myocardial Infarction database. Using a validated model, 43 928 patients (24.0%) were retrospectively placed in major, 34 917 (19.1%) in intermediate, and 104 268 (56.9%) in minor severity clinical event categories that included hospital death, recurrent myocardial ischemia, and nonfatal recurrent MI. RESULTS: The administration of widely available and universally recommended pharmacologic therapies, including aspirin and beta-adrenergic blocking agents, was suboptimal, particularly among patients with major severity clinical events. In contrast, coronary angiography and mechanical revascularization procedures were commonplace (>60% of all patients) and most frequently performed in patients within the minor (compared with the major) severity clinical event category (58.2% and 42.7%, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Patients with non-ST-segment elevation MI are a heterogeneous population, with readily identifiable demographic characteristics and clinical features associated with important early outcomes, including death. Nationwide efforts directed toward maximizing pharmacologic therapy utilization and the performance of invasive procedures according to established guidelines must continue.

Death or nonfatal stroke in patients with acute myocardial infarction treated with tissue plasminogen activator. Participants in the National Registry of Myocardial Infarction 2.

In a retrospective cohort of patients treated in community hospitals, tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) was associated with decreased odds of in-hospital death or nonfatal stroke. However, the relative benefit was less evident in older patients and women, and some older subgroups did not benefit from treatment.

Outcomes and early revascularization for patients > or = 65 years of age with cardiogenic shock.

Hospital survival of patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) complicated by cardiogenic shock has improved during recent years. It is unclear whether this mortality benefit also applies to elderly patients with cardiogenic shock. Elderly residents (age > or = 65 years) of the Worcester, Massachusetts metropolitan area (1990 census population = 437,000) hospitalized with confirmed AMI and cardiogenic shock in all metropolitan Worcester, Massachusetts hospitals between 1986 and 1997 constituted the sample of interest. We examined the use of coronary reperfusion strategies, adjunctive therapy, and hospital mortality in a cohort of 166 cardiogenic patients treated early in the reperfusion era (1986 to 1991) compared with 144 patients with AMI treated approximately 1 decade later (1993 to 1997). There was a significant increase in the use of an early revascularization strategy over time (2% vs 16%, p <0.001). Marked increases in use of antiplatelet therapy, beta blockers, and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors were also observed over the decade-long experience. In-hospital case fatality declined significantly over time, from 80% (1986 to 1991) to 69% (1993 to 1997) in elderly patients who developed cardiogenic shock (p = 0.03). After adjusting for differences in potentially confounding prognostic characteristics between patients hospitalized in the 2 study periods, an even more pronounced reduction in hospital mortality (42%) was observed for the most recently hospitalized cohort. The most powerful predictor of in-hospital survival was use of an early revascularization approach to treatment. Thus, hospital mortality has declined for patients > or = 65 years of age with AMI complicated by cardiogenic shock, and this decline has occurred in the setting of broader use of early revascularization and adjunctive medical therapy for this high-risk population.

Sex differences in 2-year mortality after hospital discharge for myocardial infarction.

BACKGROUND: An interaction between sex and age is thought to affect hospital mortality after myocardial infarction; younger, but not older, women have been shown to have higher mortality rates than men. It is currently unknown whether findings are similar after hospital discharge. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether an interaction between sex and age affects 2-year mortality after myocardial infarction. DESIGN: Community-based prospective cohort study. SETTING: 16 community hospitals serving the Worcester, Massachusetts, metropolitan area. PATIENTS: 6826 patients who survived hospitalization for acute myocardial infarction during ten 1-year periods between 1975 and 1995. MEASUREMENTS: Mortality 2 years after hospital discharge. RESULTS: The overall 2-year mortality rate was higher in women (28.9%) than in men (19.6%). When patients were examined by age group, however, only women younger than 60 years of age had a higher mortality rate than men of similar age. The sex difference decreased with increasing age; among the oldest patients, women had a lower mortality rate than men (P = 0.009 for the interaction between sex and age). This relationship was not affected by adjustment for demographic characteristics and medical history, clinical characteristics, and hospital and discharge treatments; the hazard of 2-year death for women compared with men increased 15.4% (95% CI, 4.3% to 27.6%) for every 10-year decrease in age. In absolute terms, after adjustment for demographic characteristics and medical history, among patients younger than 60 years of age women were at greater risk than men (risk difference, 1.8 percentage points). At older ages, however, women were at lower risk than men. CONCLUSIONS: Younger, but not older, women who survive hospitalization for myocardial infarction have a higher long-term mortality rate than men. This provides additional evidence that younger women with myocardial infarction are at greater risk for death than men.

Recent magnitude of and temporal trends (1994-1997) in the incidence and hospital death rates of cardiogenic shock complicating acute myocardial infarction: the second national registry of myocardial infarction.

BACKGROUND: Limited recent data are available to describe the magnitude of, and temporal trends in, the incidence and case-fatality rates associated with cardiogenic shock complicating acute myocardial infarction. The purpose of this study was to examine recent (1994-1997) trends in the incidence of, and hospital death rates from, cardiogenic shock complicating acute myocardial infarction from a large, multihospital national perspective. METHODS: An observational study was performed of 426,253 patients hospitalized with acute myocardial infarction in 1662 hospitals throughout the United States between 1994 and 1997. RESULTS: The incidence rates of cardiogenic shock averaged 6.2%. There was evidence for a slight decline in these rates between 1994 (6.6%) and 1997 (6.0%). Results of a multivariable regression analysis controlling for factors that might affect the risk of development of cardiogenic shock indicated that patients hospitalized in more recent years were at significantly lower risk for shock. Patients with shock had a markedly increased risk for dying during hospitalization compared with patients not having shock (74% vs 10%). Significant, albeit small, absolute differences were observed in the risk of dying after cardiogenic shock over time (76% dying in 1997, 72% dying in 1994). These improving trends were magnified, however, after potentially confounding prognostic factors were controlled: patients having shock in 1997 were at approximately one fifth lower risk of dying (odds ratio 0.79, 95% confidence interval 0.71-0.87) than those hospitalized in 1994. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate a slight decline in the incidence rates of cardiogenic shock and improving trends in the hospital survival of patients with shock. Despite these trends, it remains of considerable importance to prevent this clinical syndrome, given its high lethality.

Temporal trends and associated factors of inpatient cardiac rehabilitation in patients with acute myocardial infarction: a community-wide perspective.

PURPOSE: Cardiac rehabilitation (CR) has been shown to be an important therapeutic intervention after the development of acute myocardial infarction (AMI), but historically has been underused. Inpatient CR often represents cardiac patients' first exposure to risk factor modification education and acts as a gateway to outpatient programs. METHODS: The authors performed a longitudinal study of the use of inpatient CR in 5204 Worcester residents hospitalized with validated AMI in seven 1-year periods between 1986 and 1997. RESULTS: The overall rate of referral to inpatient CR was 68%, with a slight decline in use to less than 60% in the authors' most recent study year of 1997. Referred patients were significantly more likely to be younger, male, or enrolled in a health maintenance organization; they were less likely to have a history of heart failure or stroke. They were significantly more likely to receive medications shown to be of benefit in the management of AMI and to undergo cardiac interventional procedures. In 1997, patients participating in inpatient CR were more likely to have documented inpatient counseling about nutrition, exercise, smoking, and stress reduction. DISCUSSION: The results of this multihospital community-wide study suggest relatively stable, but recently decreasing, use of inpatient CR over the past decade. Women and the elderly are underrepresented in these programs. Patients not referred to inpatient rehabilitation were less likely to be prescribed effective cardiac medications and undergo risk factor modification counseling prior to discharge. Further studies are needed to better understand the reasons for patient exclusion from the benefits of inpatient CR.

The impact of the stent era on the management strategy for acute myocardial infarction: A population-based perspective.

We determined trends in the use of invasive diagnostic and revascularization strategies from a multihospital community-wide perspective for patients suffering acute myocardial infarction (AMI). Comparing 3,824 patients treated in the prestent era (1986-1993) to 1,915 patients hospitalized during the stent era (1995-1997), there was a significant increase in the use of invasive procedures and revascularization techniques across a broad spectrum of AMI patients during their index hospitalization. This resulted in a higher-risk profile of patients referred for invasive management of AMI in the stent era. Cathet. Cardiovasc. Intervent. 51:255-258, 2000.