Protonation-State Dependence of Hydration and Interactions in the Two Proton-Conducting Channels of Cytochrome c Oxidase.

Cytochrome c Oxidase (CcO), a membrane protein of the respiratory chain, pumps protons against an electrochemical gradient by using the energy of oxygen reduction to water. The ("chemical") protons required for this reaction and those pumped are taken up via two distinct channels, named D-channel and K-channel, in a step-wise and highly regulated fashion. In the reductive phase of the catalytic cycle, both channels transport protons so that the pumped proton passes the D-channel before the "chemical" proton has crossed the K-channel. By performing molecular dynamics simulations of CcO in the O→E redox state (after the arrival of the first reducing electron) with various combinations of protonation states of the D- and K-channels, we analysed the effect of protonation on the two channels. In agreement with previous work, the amount of water observed in the D-channel was significantly higher when the terminal residue E286 was not (yet) protonated than when the proton arrived at this end of the D-channel and E286 was neutral. Since a sufficient number of water molecules in the channel is necessary for proton transport, this can be understood as E286 facilitating its own protonation. K-channel hydration shows an even higher dependence on the location of the excess proton in the K-channel. Also in agreement with previous work, the K-channel exhibits a very low hydration level that likely hinders proton transfer when the excess proton is located in the lower part of the K-channel, that is, on the N-side of S365. Once the proton has passed S365 (towards the reaction site, the bi-nuclear centre (BNC)), the amount of water in the K-channel provides hydrogen-bond connectivity that renders proton transfer up to Y288 at the BNC feasible. No significant direct effect of the protonation state of one channel on the hydration level, hydrogen-bond connectivity, or interactions between protein residues in the other channel could be observed, rendering proton conductivity in the two channels independent of each other. Regulation of the order of proton uptake and proton passage in the two channels such that the "chemical" proton leaves its channel last must, therefore, be achieved by other means of communication, such as the location of the reducing electron.

Interplay of Hydration and Protonation Dynamics in the K-Channel of Cytochrome c Oxidase.

Cytochrome c oxidase is a membrane protein of the respiratory chain that consumes protons and molecular oxygen to produce water and uses the resulting energy to pump protons across the membrane. Our molecular dynamics simulations with an excess proton located at different positions in one of the proton-conducting channels, the K-channel, show a clear dependence of the number of water molecules inside the channel on the proton position. A higher hydration level facilitates the formation of hydrogen-bonded chains along which proton transfer can occur. However, a sufficiently high hydration level for such proton transport is observed only when the excess proton is located above S365, i.e., the lower third of the channel. From the channel entrance up to this point, proton transport is via water molecules as proton carriers. These hydronium ions move with their surrounding water molecules, up to K362, filling and widening the channel. The conformation of K362 depends on its own protonation state and on the hydration level, suggesting its role to be proton transport from a hydronium ion at the height of K362 to the upper part of the channel via a conformational change. The protonation-dependent conformational dynamics of E101 at the bottom of the channel renders proton transfer via E101 unlikely. Instead, its role is rather that of an amplifier of H96's proton affinity, suggesting H96 as the initial proton acceptor.

Effect of a U:G mispair on the water around DNA.

DNA repair proteins are able to discriminate DNA lesions among an abundance of intact DNA with high selectivity. To investigate detectable characteristics of one specific lesion, we compare statistical results from molecular dynamics simulations of two different DNA in water, one with an intact C:G pair and one that contains a U:G mispair, and perform a comparative analysis of the water dynamics around the two. Our data show that in addition to the local DNA conformation, also the surrounding water shell exhibits significant differences that may help mispair discrimination. The chemical groups which account for a U:G mispair to exhibit a wobble conformation instead of the 'proper' Watson-Crick pairing of a C:G pair, that is an oxygen atom (in uracil) instead of an amino group (in cytosine), also order the water molecules around the bases such that they act predominantly as hydrogen-bond donor or acceptor to the uracil or cytosine base, respectively. These changes in water conformation stretch into the second solvation shell, which may be exploited by repair enzymes to achieve lesion detection with high efficiency.

Hydrogen-Bonded Network and Water Dynamics in the D-channel of Cytochrome c Oxidase.

Proton transfer in cytochrome c oxidase (CcO) from the cellular inside to the binuclear redox centre as well as proton pumping through the membrane takes place through proton entrance via two distinct pathways, the D- and K-channel. Both channels show a dependence of their hydration level on the protonation states of their key residues, K362 for the K-channel, and E286 or D132 for the D-channel. In the oxidative half of CcO's catalytic cycle the D-channel is the proton-conducting path. For this channel, an interplay of protonation state of the D-channel residues with the water and hydrogen-bond dynamics has been observed in molecular dynamics simulations of the CcO protein, embedded in a lipid bi-layer, modelled in different protonation states. Protonation of residue E286 at the end of the D-channel results in a hydrogen-bonded network pointing from E286 to N139, that is against proton transport, and favouring N139 conformations which correspond to a closed asparagine gate (formed by residues N121 and N139). Consequently, the hydration level is lower than with unprotonated E286. In those models, the Asn gate is predominantly open, allowing water molecules to pass and thus increase the hydration level. The hydrogen-bonded network in these states exhibits longer life times of the Asn residues with water than other models and shows the D-channel to be traversable from the entrance, D132, to exit, E286. The D-channel can thus be regarded as auto-regulated with respect to proton transport, allowing proton passage only when required, that is the proton is located at the lower part of the D-channel (D132 to Asn gate) and not at the exit (E286).