Outcomes of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation and cardiopulmonary bypass in children after drowning-related resuscitation.

Drowning is one of the leading causes of accidental deaths in children worldwide. However, the use of long-term extracorporeal life support (ECLS) in this setting is not widely established, and rewarming is often achieved by short-term cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) treatment. Thus, we sought to add our experience with this means of support as a bridge-to-recovery or to-decision. This retrospective single-center study analyzes the outcome of 11 children (median 23 months, minimum-maximum 3 months-6.5 years) who experienced drowning and subsequent cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) between 2005 and 2016 and who were supported by veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO), CPB, or first CPB then ECMO. All but one incident took place in sweet water. Submersion time ranged between 10 and 50 minutes (median 23 minutes), water temperature between 2°C and 28°C (median 14°C), and body core temperature upon arrival in the emergency department between 20°C and 34°C (median 25°C). Nine patients underwent ongoing CPR from the scene until ECMO or CPB initiation in the operating room. The duration of ECMO or CPB before successful weaning/therapy withdrawal ranged between 2 and 322 hours (median 19 hours). A total of four patients (36%) survived neurologically mildly or not affected after 4 years of follow-up. The data indicate that survival is likely related to a shorter submersion time and lower water temperature. Resuscitation of pediatric patients after drowning has a poor outcome. However, ECMO or CPB might promote recovery in selected cases or serve as a bridge-to-decision tool.

Impact of delayed sternal closure on wound infections following neonatal and infant cardiac surgery.

OBJECTIVES: Delayed sternal closure is a routine procedure to reduce hemodynamic and respiratory instability in pediatric patients following cardiac surgery, particularly in neonates and infants. In this setting, the possible links between sternal wound infection and delayed sternal closure are still a matter of debate. As a part of our routine, there was a low threshold for delayed sternal closure, so we reviewed our experience with sternal wound infections with a focus on potentially related perioperative risk factors, particularly delayed sternal closure. METHODS: We retrospectively identified 358 operated neonates (37%) and infants (mean age 3.6 months) in our local congenital heart disease database between January 2013 and June 2017. Potential risk factors for sternal wound infections, such as age, gender, complexity (based on Aristotle- and STS-EACTS mortality category), reoperation, use of cardiopulmonary bypass, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, mortality and delayed sternal closure (163/358, 46%), were subjected to uni- and multivariate analysis. RESULTS: A total of 26/358 patients (7.3%) developed a superficial sternal wound infection. There were no deep sternal wound infections, no mediastinitis or sepsis. Applying univariate analysis, the prevalence of sternal wound infections was related to younger age, more complex surgery and delayed sternal closure. However, in multivariate analysis, sternal wound infection was only associated with delayed sternal closure (p = 0.013, odds ratio 8.6). Logistic regression revealed the prevalence of delayed sternal closure to be related to younger age, complexity, and the use of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. CONCLUSION: In patients younger than one year, sternal wound infections are clearly related to delayed sternal closure. However, in our cohort, all sternal wound infections were superficial and acceptable, considering the improved postoperative hemodynamic stability.

Impact of hepatopathy in pediatric patients after surgery for complex congenital heart disease.

Patients undergoing complex pediatric cardiac surgery in early infancy are at risk of postoperative secondary end-organ dysfunction. The aim of this study was to determine specific risk factors promoting the development of peri- and postoperative hepatopathy after surgery for congenital heart disease. In this retrospective study, we identified 20 consecutive patients operated between 2011 and 2019 from our institutional cohort who developed significant postsurgical hepatic dysfunction. These patients were compared to a control group of 30 patients with comparable initial cardiac conditions and STS-EACTS risk score. Patients who developed hepatopathy in the intensive care unit have chronic cholestasis and decreased liver synthesis. The impact of postoperative hepatopathy on morbidity was marked. In six patients (30%), liver transplantation was executed as ultima ratio, and two (10%) were listed for liver transplantation. The overall mortality related to postoperative hepatopathy is high: We found nine patients (45%) having severe hepatopathy and mostly multiple organ dysfunction who died in the postoperative course. According to risk analysis, postoperative right and left heart dysfunction in combination with a postoperative anatomical residuum needing a re-operation or re-intervention in the postoperative period is associated with a high risk for the development of cardiac hepatopathy. Furthermore, postoperative complications (pleural effusion, heart rhythm disorders, etc.), postoperative infections, and the need for parenteral nutrition also raise the risk for cardiac hepatopathy. Further investigations are needed to reduce hepatic complications and improve the general prognosis of such complex patients.

Prediction of Nociception in Children Using the Nociceptive Flexion Reflex Threshold and the Bispectral Index-A Prospective Exploratory Observational Study.

OBJECTIVES: The prediction of patient responses to potentially painful stimuli remains a challenge in PICUs. We investigated the ability of the paintracker analgesia monitor (Dolosys GmbH, Berlin, Germany) measuring the nociceptive flexion reflex threshold, the cerebral sedation monitor bispectral index (Medtronic, Dublin, Ireland), the COMFORT Behavior, and the modified Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, Consolability Scale scores to predict patient responses following a noxious stimulus. DESIGN: Single-center prospective exploratory observational study. SETTING: Fourteen-bed multidisciplinary PICU at the University Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Hamburg Eppendorf, Germany. PATIENTS: Children on mechanical ventilation receiving analgesic and sedative medications. INTERVENTIONS: Noxious stimulation by way of endotracheal suctioning. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Two independent observers assessed modified Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, Consolability and COMFORT Behavior Scales scores during noxious stimulation (n = 59) in 26 patients. Vital signs were recorded immediately before and during noxious stimulation; bispectral index and nociceptive flexion reflex threshold were recorded continuously. Mean prestimulation bispectral index (55.5; CI, 44.2-66.9 vs 39.9; CI, 33.1-46.8; p = 0.007), and COMFORT Behavior values (9.5; CI, 9.2-13.2 vs 7.5; CI, 6.7-8.5; p = 0.023) were significantly higher in observations with a response than in those without a response. Prediction probability (Pk) values for patient responses were high when the bispectral index was used (Pk = 0.85) but only fair when the nociceptive flexion reflex threshold (Pk = 0.69) or COMFORT Behavior Scale score (Pk = 0.73) was used. A logistic mixed-effects model confirmed the bispectral index as a significant potential predictor of patient response (p = 0.007). CONCLUSIONS: In our sample of ventilated children in the PICU, bispectral index and nociceptive flexion reflex threshold provided good and fair prediction accuracy for patient responses to endotracheal suctioning.

Autologous Tissue Technique to Repair Unilateral Isolated Absence of a Pulmonary Artery.

Isolated unilateral absence of a pulmonary artery (UAPA) is a rare congenital anomaly in which one branch pulmonary artery has no connection to the main pulmonary trunk (most often there is ductal origin). Without treatment, it may lead to ipsilateral pulmonary hypoplasia and contralateral pulmonary artery hypertension. To avoid these complications, early surgical repair of UAPA is necessary. Surgical strategies include direct anastomosis between the "isolated" branch pulmonary artery (PA) and the main pulmonary trunk or creation of an interposition graft using prosthetic material or flap techniques. We describe a surgical technique using a totally autologous interposition tube graft.

Impact of delayed systemic heparinization on postoperative bleeding and thromboembolism during post-cardiotomy extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in neonates.

INTRODUCTION: Veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation is well-established for pediatric patients with post-cardiotomy heart failure. However, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support is associated with major complications, that is, hemorrhage and thromboembolism. We seek to report our experience with delayed systemic heparinization during neonatal cardiac extracorporeal membrane oxygenation and its impact on bleeding and thromboembolism. METHODS: We retrospectively identified 15 consecutive neonates who were placed on extracorporeal membrane oxygenation after congenital heart surgery during a period of 3 years (2015-2017). Our anticoagulation protocol consisted of full heparin reversal by protamine after switching from cardiopulmonary bypass to extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (target activated clotting time: 120 ± 20 seconds). Administration of systemic heparinization was delayed until postoperative drainage volume declined to <1 mL/kg/h. Primary study endpoints were thromboembolism, bleeding, and requirement of blood products on extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. RESULTS: Our cohort (mean age: 13 ± 2.6 days; mean weight: 3.1 ± 0.3 kg; 66.7% male) required post-cardiotomy extracorporeal membrane oxygenation with a mean support time of 4.5 ± 2.2 days. Systemic heparinization was delayed averagely for 18.1 ± 9.3 hours. No thromboembolic events were observed on extracorporeal membrane oxygenation or after weaning. Relevant surgical site bleeding occurred in two patients (13.3%) requiring re-thoracotomy on the first postoperative day. Analysis of transfusion volumes revealed 24.5 ± 21.9 mL/kg/d mean packed red blood cells, 9.6 ± 7.1 mL/kg/d mean fresh frozen plasma, and 7.5 ± 5.7 mL/kg/d mean platelets. In-hospital survival was 86.6% (n = 13). CONCLUSION: In this retrospective analysis, the results of delayed systemic heparinization in neonatal post-cardiotomy extracorporeal membrane oxygenation could lead one to conclude that this routine is safe and favorable with low risk for thromboembolic events, reduced postoperative hemorrhage, and reduced blood product utilization.

Prognostic value of perioperative near-infrared spectroscopy during neonatal and infant congenital heart surgery for adverse in-hospital clinical events.

BACKGROUND: Perioperative monitoring with multisite near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) for congenital cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass may aid in predicting adverse clinical outcomes. METHODS: Forty-one consecutive neonates and infants undergoing bypass were monitored with right + left cerebral and renal NIRS. Near-infrared spectroscopy and lactate were measured at 20 time points, from baseline 1 day preoperatively, during bypass and modified ultrafiltration (MUF; 10 minutes), until 24 hours postoperatively. Adverse events were extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO)/death, prolonged intensive care unit (ICU) or length of hospital stay. RESULTS: Perioperative mean renal NIRS remained higher than baseline (n = 41) as did cerebral NIRS in all undergoing biventricular repair. During bypass (n = 41), mean right and left cerebral NIRS were equal. During MUF, cerebral and renal NIRS values increased (P < .001). Cerebral NIRS and lactate inversely correlated during the first six postoperative hours. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation /death occurred in four patients, correlating with cerebral and renal NIRS below 45% (P = .030) and 40% (P = .019) at anytime, respectively, and with mean lactate levels >9.3 mmol/L in the first postoperative 24 hours (P < .001). Among survivors, renal NIRS below 30% at any time predicted a longer ICU stay. CONCLUSIONS: At bypass conclusion, 10 minutes of MUF does not adversely affect cerebral or renal NIRS. Left and right cerebral NIRS are equal, so that biparietal cerebral NIRS monitoring is probably not warranted. Perioperative cerebral and renal NIRS readings, respectively, below 45% and 40% correlate with ECMO/death and renal NIRS below 30% with prolonged ICU stay. Cerebral NIRS and lactate levels showed a strong inverse correlation during the first six postoperative hours.

The impact of shunt type on palliative outcomes in neonates and infants with diminished pulmonary blood flow.

We analyzed early and intermediate outcomes in cyanotic neonates (n = 43) and infants (n = 26) requiring palliation with either a modified Blalock-Taussig shunt (MBT) or a central aortopulmonary shunt (CAP). Between 1995 and 2009, 69 consecutive patients underwent an MBT (n = 42) or CAP (n = 27) for tetralogy of Fallot (n = 21), pulmonary atresia (n = 25), severe pulmonary valve stenosis (n = 22), and 2-stage repair of transposition of the great arteries (n = 1). The groups were similar with regard to age, weight, pulmonary artery diameter, and preoperative saturations. Postoperative mortality was 3 after CAP (11.1%) versus 1 after MBT (2.4%; P = .0203). Shunt size/weight index was comparable for both groups. MBTs had shorter surgical times (P = .002), required less inotropes (inotropic index, 103 ± 18 vs 889 ± 199; P = .0069), less blood product transfusions (P = .01), and had shorter duration of ventilation (P = .026) and intensive care unit (ICU) stay (P = .042). Children with MBTs had higher saturations at hospital discharge (P = .018). Prior to complete repair, 2 patients with a CAP and 10 patients after an MBT needed pulmonary artery dilation or stent implantation (P = .23). At the time of complete repair and shunt takedown, 3 MBT patients needed surgical patch augmentation of the pulmonary artery. The MBT is a safer and more expeditious operation and more frequently avoids cardiopulmonary bypass. Patients require less inotropes, blood products, and ICU time but may require more interventional therapy to treat pulmonary artery stenosis in the interval to complete repair. Surgical treatment of shunt-related pulmonary artery distortion may be addressed at the time of complete repair.

Levels of brain natriuretic peptide in children with right ventricular overload due to congenital cardiac disease.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the role of the concentration of brain natriuretic peptide in the plasma, and its correlation with haemodynamic right ventricular parameters, in children with overload of the right ventricle due to congenital cardiac disease. METHODS: We studied 31 children, with a mean age of 4.8 years, with volume or pressure overload of the right ventricle caused by congenital cardiac disease. Of the patients, 19 had undergone surgical biventricular correction of tetralogy of Fallot, 11 with pulmonary stenosis and 8 with pulmonary atresia, and 12 patients were studied prior to operations, 7 with atrial septal defects and 5 with anomalous pulmonary venous connections. We measured brain natriuretic peptide using Triage(R), from Biosite, United States of America. We determined end-diastolic pressures of the right ventricle, and the peak ratio of right to left ventricular pressures, by cardiac catheterization and correlated them with concentrations of brain natriuretic peptide in the plasma. RESULTS: The mean concentrations of brain natriuretic peptide were 87.7, with a range from 5 to 316, picograms per millilitre. Mean end-diastolic pressure in the right ventricle was 5.6, with a range from 2 to 10, millimetres of mercury, and the mean ratio of right to left ventricular pressure was 0.56, with a range from 0.24 to 1.03. There was a positive correlation between the concentrations of brain natriuretic peptide and the ratio of right to left ventricular pressure (r equal to 0.7844, p less than 0.0001) in all patients. These positive correlations remained when the children with tetralogy of Fallot, and those with atrial septal defects or anomalous pulmonary venous connection, were analysed as separate groups. We also found a weak correlation was shown between end-diastolic right ventricular pressure and concentrations of brain natriuretic peptide in the plasma (r equal to 0.5947, p equal to 0.0004). CONCLUSION: There is a significant correlation between right ventricular haemodynamic parameters and concentrations of brain natriuretic peptide in the plasma of children with right ventricular overload due to different types of congenital cardiac disease. The monitoring of brain natriuretic peptide may provide a non-invasive and safe quantitative follow up of the right ventricular pressure and volume overload in these patients.

Effect of Carvedilol on QT Duration in Paediatric Patients with Congestive Heart Failure.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effect of carvedilol on electrocardiographic parameters in children with congestive heart failure. PATIENTS AND METHODS: 18 children with heart failure (aged 2 months-17 years) were treated with carvedilol (initially 0.09 mg/kg/day, slowly increased up to 0.7 mg/kg/day) in addition to conventional therapy with digoxin, ACE inhibitors and diuretics. Twelve-lead rest electrocardiograms (ECGs) and echocardiography were performed in 16 patients with sinus rhythm at baseline and after 1, 2, 4 (n = 14) and 6 months (n = 14) of therapy. ECGs were analysed for heart rate, QT duration and QT dispersion. Echocardiography was performed for analysis of ejection fraction. RESULTS: After 6 months of therapy the mean ejection fraction increased from 37% to 55% (p < 0.05) and mean heart rate decreased by 14% (p < 0.05). Mean QT duration calculated by Bazett's formula (QT(B)) and Fridericia's formula (QT(F)) decreased from 428 msec (372-507 msec) to 387 msec (323-440 msec [QT(B)]; p < 0.05) and from 381 msec (315-466 msec) to 355 msec (309-435 msec [QT(F)]; p < 0.05) following therapy with carvedilol. In contrast, mean QT dispersion did not change significantly (18 msec; 10-40 msec before to 12 msec; 5-20 msec; p > 0.05). CONCLUSION: In conclusion, carvedilol treatment reduced QT duration but not QT dispersion in paediatric patients with heart failure. The decrease in QT duration reflects stabilisation of the action potential, and this may contribute to the improved prognosis in these patients.