Cross-sectional experimental assessment of pain modulation as part of multidimensional profiling of people with cervicogenic headache: protocol for a feasibility study.

BACKGROUND: An endogenous pain modulation profile, reflecting antinociceptive and pronociceptive mechanisms, may help to direct management by targeting the involved pain mechanism. For individuals with cervicogenic headache (CeH), the characteristics of such profiles were never investigated. However, the individual nature of experiencing pain demands profiling within a multidimensional framework including psychosocial lifestyle characteristics. The objective of the current protocol is to assess the pain modulation profile, which includes psychosocial lifestyle characteristics among people with CeH. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: A protocol is described to map pain modulation profiles in people with CeH. A cross-sectional non-randomised experimental design will be used to assess feasibility of mapping these profiles. The pain modulation profile is composed based on results on the Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, Headache Impact Test and on responses to temporal summation of pain (pinprick), conditioned pain modulation and widespread hyperalgesia (mechanical pressure pain threshold and cuff algometry). Primary analyses will report results relating to outcomes on feasibility. Secondary analyses will involve an analysis of proportions (%) of the different psychosocial lifestyle profiles and pain profiles. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: Ethical approval was granted by the Ethics Committee Research UZ/KU Leuven (Registration number B3222024001434) on 30 May 2024. Results will be published in peer-reviewed journals, at scientific conferences and, through press releases. Protocol V.3. protocol date: 3 June 2024.

Body composition and associated factors among 5-7-year-old children with moderate acute malnutrition in Jimma town in southwest Ethiopia: A comparative cross-sectional study.

Acute malnutrition affects not only the growth and development but also the body composition of children. However, its specific effects have not yet been characterized. This study aims to compare the body composition of 5-7-year-old children with moderate acute malnutrition (MAM) to that of their well-nourished (WN) peers and identify associated factors. A school-based comparative cross-sectional study was conducted from June to July 2022 in Jimma town, southwest Ethiopia. The study participants were selected from eight kindergartens and eight primary schools using a simple random sampling technique based on the proportional allocation of the sample to the size of the population in the respective school. Descriptive statistics and multivariable linear regression analyses were used to assess the mean differences and associations between variables and isolate independent predictors of body composition, respectively. The statistical significance was determined using ß-coefficients with 95% confidence intervals and a p value of ≤ 0.05. Data were captured from 388 (194 MAM and 194 WN) children with a response rate of 97.9%. The mean fat-free mass of WN children was significantly higher compared with those with MAM (p < 0.001). The mean (SD) of fat mass of MAM children was 4.23 ± 0.72 kg, 4.36 ± 0.88 kg and 4.08 ± 0.89 kg for 5, 6 and 7-year-olds, respectively. For WN children, the mean (SD) of fat mass was 4.92 ± 0.88 kg for 5 years old, 5.64 ± 1.01 kg for 6 years old and 5.75 ± 1.26 kg for 7 years old (p < 0.001). On the multivariable linear regression analysis after controlling for background variables, WN children exhibited 1.51 times higher fat-free mass compared with MAM children (ß = 1.51, p = 0.003). A unit increase in age of the study participants was associated with a 1.37 increment in fat-free mass (ß = 1.37, p < 0.001). WN children had 1.07 times higher fat mass compared with children with MAM (ß = 1.07, p < 0.001). A unit increase in the age of the child resulted in 0.15 times increment in fat mass (ß = 0.15, p = 0.020), and being female was associated with a 0.37 increase in fat mass (ß = 0.37, p < 0.001). The results showed that the mean fat mass and fat-free mass were significantly lower among moderately acute malnourished children than in WN children showing the loss of both body compartments due to malnutrition. The body mass index for age, age of the child and sex of the child were significantly linked to both fat-free mass and fat mass.

Therapeutic Patient Education as Part of the Physiotherapy Management of Adults with Headache: A Scoping Review.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Physiotherapy interventions for headache mostly include exercise and manual therapy. Yet, the complex nature of headache, sometimes characterized by symptoms of facilitated central pain mechanisms, demands an individualized approach in which therapeutic patient education could be supportive. This scoping review aimed to summarize the position of therapeutic patient education within the physiotherapy management of adults with headache. PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, and Scopus were searched. The search-query comprised terminology relating to "headache", "education", and "physiotherapy". Eligibility criteria were: adults with headache, interventions including education within the domain of physiotherapy, reviews, clinical trials, cohort, case report, case-control studies. RECENT FINDINGS: Eleven publications were included from the 281 retrieved publications. These publications were clinical trials (n = 4), reviews (n = 4), case-reports (n = 2), and a guideline (n = 1). Type of headaches studied were migraine (n = 3), post-traumatic headache (n = 2), tension-type headache (n = 2), cervicogenic headache (n = 1), primary headaches (n = 1), chronic daily headache (n = 1), and mixed migraine-cervicogenic headache (n = 1). Education seems an umbrella-term for postural education, lifestyle advice, and pain education. Three themes emerged across the publications: handling headache triggers (migraine, post-traumatic headache), promoting active lifestyle (post-traumatic headache, chronic daily headache, migraine), evaluating posture (post-traumatic headache, chronic daily headache, tension-type headache, cervicogenic headache). All publications recommended education in the management of headache. Only one (of the 11 included) publication described the educational program and determined its efficacy. Based on this scoping review, therapeutic patient education seems supported within physiotherapy management of headache. However, it is unclear how such education is tailored to the specific needs of the individual, the headache subtype, or when it should be added to physiotherapy management of headache.

Individual endogenous pain modulation profiles within a multidimensional context of people with cervicogenic headache - A retrospective exploratory study.

BACKGROUND: One in four individuals with cervicogenic headache (CeH) are unresponsive to therapy. Such therapy involves predominantly biomedical interventions targeting the upper-cervical spine. A recurring theme within musculoskeletal practice is the multidimensional nature and substantial heterogeneity of the condition. Such heterogeneity might be a reason for failure of a biomedical approach. Therefore, future studies investigating efficacy of managing CeH should ideally be based on identification, and better understanding of the heterogeneity of this population based on a comprehensive evaluation of clinically relevant contributing factors. OBJECTIVES: The objective was to map profiles of individuals with CeH based on pain modulation within a multidimensional context. DESIGN: Pain Modulation Profiles (PMPs) of 18 adults (29-51 years) with CeH were mapped retrospectively. METHOD: The PMPs consisted of a Pain-Profile (bilateral suboccipital, erector spinae, anterior tibialis pressure pain thresholds), a Psycho-Social-Lifestyle-Profile (Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale, Headache Impact test, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index), or a combination of both. Individual results were compared to normative data. Two Pain-Profiles were defined: normal or altered. Psycho-Social-Lifestyle-Profiles were categorized based on the number of altered psycho-social-lifestyle factors (range 0-5). RESULTS: Mapping PMPs in individuals with CeH resulted in 50% presenting with a dominant altered Pain-Profile, 16.7% with a dominant altered Psycho-Social-Lifestyle-Profile, and 5.6% with dominant alterations in both Pain-Profile and Psycho-Social-Lifestyle-Profile. CONCLUSION: Our results indicate heterogeneity of PMPs within the CeH population. Replication of these results is needed through dynamic assessment of the Pain-Profile before evaluating if these profiles can help patient-stratification.

Thoracic spinal postures and mobility in patients with cervicogenic headache versus asymptomatic healthy controls: A longitudinal study.

INTRODUCTION: Studies analyzing postures and mobility of the thoracic spine in the context of cervicogenic headache are missing. Insight in these parameters is needed since the cervical and thoracic spine are biomechanically related. OBJECTIVE: To compare self-perceived optimal and habitual postures, active-assisted maximal range of motion, and repositioning error of the upper-thoracic and lower-thoracic spine between a cervicogenic headache-group and matched healthy control-group before and after a 30 min-laptop-task. METHODS: A non-randomized longitudinal design was used to compare thoracic postures and mobility between 18 participants with cervicogenic headache (29-51 years) and 18 matched healthy controls (26-52 years). Outcomes were: self-perceived optimal and habitual postures, active-assisted maximal range of motion, and repositioning error of the upper-thoracic and lower-thoracic spine evaluated in sitting with a 3D-Vicon motion analysis system. RESULTS: Habitual upper-thoracic postures in the cervicogenic headache-group were significantly (p = .04) less located toward the maximal range of motion for flexion compared to the control-group, self-perceived optimal upper-thoracic posture was significantly (p = .004) more extended in the cervicogenic headache-group compared to the control-group, and self-perceived optimal lower-thoracic posture could not be reestablished in the cervicogenic headache-group after the laptop-task (p = .009). CONCLUSION: Thoracic postures differ between a cervicogenic headache-group and control-group. These differences were detected by expressing the habitual thoracic posture relative to its maximal range of motion, and by analyzing the possibility of repositioning the thoracic spine after a headache provoking activity. Longitudinal studies are needed to determine the contribution of these musculoskeletal dysfunctions to the pathophysiology of cervicogenic headache.

Current evidence on the effectiveness of Ready-to-Use Supplementary Foods in children with moderate acute malnutrition: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Moderate acute malnutrition (MAM) is defined by a weight-for-height Z-score (WHZ) between -3 and -2 of the WHO reference or by a mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) of ≥11⋅5 and <12⋅5 cm. This study aimed to synthesise the evidence for the effectiveness of Ready-to-Use Supplementary Food (RUSF) compared to other dietary interventions or no intervention on functioning at different levels of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF) among children with MAM between 2 and12 years old. Three databases (PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science) were systematically searched (last update: 20 November 2022). Pooled estimates of effect were calculated using random-effects meta-analyses. The level of evidence was estimated with the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) method. Seven studies were included. RUSF had a significant small-sized better effect (pooled mean: 0⋅38; 95 % CI = [0⋅10, 0⋅67], P = 0⋅01, I² = 97 %) on different anthropometric measurements compared to other dietary interventions among MAM children (n 6476). Comparing RUSF with corn-soy blend Plus Plus (CSB++) showed that RUSF had a small-sized but significantly better effect on the children's anthropometric measures compared to children who received CSB++ (pooled mean: 0⋅16; 95 % CI = [0⋅05, 0⋅27], P = 0⋅01; I2 = 35 %). MAM children treated with RUSF had a better recovery rate compared to those treated with CSB++ (pooled risk difference: 0⋅11; 95 % CI = [0⋅06, 0⋅11], P < 0⋅001; I2 = 0 %). The RUSF intervention seems promising in improving MAM children's nutritional outcomes and recovery rate compared to other dietary interventions.

Cross-Sectional Study of Headache in Flemish Children and Adolescents.

Background: Although headache is common in pediatrics, data for the Flemish population are missing. We explored headache-prevalence, and its association with communication-technology (CT) and physical activity (PA) in Flemish children and adolescents. Methods: A cross-sectional exploratory school-based questionnaire study was designed. Flemish boys and girls (5-18 years) completed a symptom-questionnaire. Primary outcomes: sociodemographic background, headache-prevalence, headache-characteristics, CT-use and PA characteristics (self-report). Secondary outcomes: associations between headache-characteristics, age, gender, and CT-use and PA-characteristics. Results: Four hundred twenty-four questionnaires were analysed: 5-7-years: n = 58; 8-11-years: n = 84; 12-15-years: n = 137; 16-18-years: n = 145. Fifty-five percent suffered from headache. Prevalence increased with age. More 16-18-year girls versus boys had headache. CT-use was the main headache-provocateur. Headache prevalence was significantly higher in a frequently physical active population. Conclusion: Our results suggest presence of headache in Flemish children and adolescents. PA-level associates with headache prevalence. However, children and adolescents with headache did not report more CT-use compared to controls.

Inter-individual variability in mechanical pain sensation in patients with cervicogenic headache: an explorative study.

Currently, evidence for effective physiotherapy interventions in patients with cervicogenic headache (CeH) is inconsistent. Although inter-individual variability in pain response is predictive for successful physiotherapy interventions, it was never explored in patients with CeH. Therefore the objective of the current study was to explore inter-individual variability in mechanical pain sensation, and its association with biopsychosocial-lifestyle (BPSL) characteristics in patients with CeH. A cross-sectional explorative analysis of inter-individual variability in mechanical pain sensation in 18 participants with CeH (29-51 years) was conducted. Inter-individual variability in mechanical pain sensation (standard deviations (SDs), F-statistics, Measurement System Analysis) was deducted from bilateral pressure pain thresholds of the suboccipitals, erector spine, tibialis anterior. BPSL-characteristics depression, anxiety, stress (Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21), quality of life (Headache Impact Test-6), sleep-quality (Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index), and sedentary time (hours/week) were questioned. Inter-individual variability in mechanical pain sensation explained 69.2% (suboccipital left), 86.8% (suboccipital right), 94.6% (erector spine left), 93.2% (erector spine right), 91.7% (tibialis anterior left), and 82% (tibialis anterior right) of the total variability in patients with CeH. The significant p-values and large F-statistic values indicate inter-individual differences in SDs. Significant associations between (1) lower quality of life and lower SDs of the suboccipital left PPT (p .005), and (2) longer sedentary time and higher SDs of the suboccipital left PPT (p .001) were observed. Results from our explorative study could suggest inter-individual variability in mechanical pain sensation at the left suboccipitals which associates with quality of life and sedentary time. These novel findings should be considered when phenotyping patients and 'individually' match interventions.

Exploring multidimensional characteristics in cervicogenic headache: Relations between pain processing, lifestyle, and psychosocial factors.

OBJECTIVE: Although multidimensional interventions including physiotherapy, psychology, and education are generally recommended in managing headache, and to prevent chronification, such approach is lacking in cervicogenic headache (CeH). Therefore, exploring CeH within a biopsychosocial framework is deemed an essential first step. METHODS: Non-randomized cross-sectional design to compare pain processing, lifestyle, and psychosocial characteristics between 18 participants with CeH (CeH group) (40.2 ± 10.9 years) and 18 matched controls (control group) (39.2 ± 13.1 years). Pain processing characteristics included degree of central sensitization (Central Sensitization Inventory), and (extra)-cephalic pressure pain thresholds (kPa/cm²/s). Lifestyle characteristics included sleep quality (Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index), physical activity, screen time, and sedentary time (hours a week). Psychosocial characteristics included degree of depression, anxiety and stress (Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21), and quality of life (Headache Impact Test-6). RESULTS: Pain processing characteristics: More (p = .04) participants in the CeH group showed higher degrees of central sensitization compared to the control group. Lower (p < .05) (extra)-cephalic pressure pain thresholds were revealed in the CeH group compared to the control group for each muscle. Lifestyle and psychosocial characteristics: Compared to the control group, sleep quality and headache-related quality of life were worse (p < .0001) in the CeH group. Severe to extreme stress was experienced by more participants in the CeH group (p = .02). Further, significant relations between pain processing and (1) lifestyle characteristics and (2) psychosocial characteristics were seen in the CeH group. CONCLUSION: Exploring multidimensional characteristics in CeH exposed relations between pain processing, lifestyle, and psychosocial characteristics. These novel findings fill a gap in the current scientific literature, and highlight the need for outcome research targeting lifestyle and psychosocial factors.

Spinal postural variability relates to biopsychosocial variables in patients with cervicogenic headache.

Patients with cervicogenic headache (CeH) showed lower spinal postural variability (SPV). In a next step, the complex character of such SPV needs to be analysed. Therefore, variables influencing SPV need to be explored. A non-randomized repeated-measure design was applied to analyse relations between biopsychosocial variables and SPV within a CeH-group (n = 18), 29-51 years, and matched control-group (n = 18), 26-52 years. Spinal postural variability, expressed by standard deviations, was deducted from 3D-Vicon motion analysis of habitual spinal postures (degrees). Interactions between SPV and pain processing, lifestyle, psychosocial characteristics were analysed. Pain processing characteristics included symptoms of central sensitization (Central Sensitization Inventory), (extra)-cephalic pressure pain thresholds (kPa/cm2/s). Lifestyle characteristics included sleep quality (Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index), physical activity, screen-time, sedentary-time (hours a week), position (cm) and inclination (degrees) of the laptop (= desk-setup). Psychosocial characteristics included degree of depression, anxiety and stress (Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21), impact of headache on quality of life (Headache Impact Test-6). Spinal postural variability related significantly to intrinsic (stress, anxiety, extra-cephalic pressure pain thresholds, sleep-duration) and extrinsic (desk-setup, screen-time) variables in the CeH-group. In the control-group, SPV related significantly to extra-cephalic pressure pain thresholds. Spinal postural variability related to diverse variables in the CeH-group compared to the control-group. More research is needed into a possible causal relationship and its clinical implication.

Lower spinal postural variability during laptop-work in subjects with cervicogenic headache compared to healthy controls.

Spinal postural variability (SPV) is a prerequisite to prevent musculoskeletal complaints during functional tasks. Our objective was to evaluate SPV in cervicogenic headache (CeH) since CeH is characterized by such complaints. A non-randomized repeated-measure design was applied to compare SPV between 18 participants with reporting CeH aged 29-51 years, and 18 matched controls aged 26-52 years during a 30-min-laptop-task. Habitual spinal postures (degrees) of the cervical, thoracic and lumbar spine were analysed using 3D-Vicon motion analysis. SPV, to express variation in mean habitual spinal posture, was deducted from the postural analysis. Mean SPV of each spinal segment was lower in the CeH-group compared to the control-group. Within the CeH-group, SPV of all except one spinal segment (lower-lumbar) was higher compared to the group's mean SPV. Within the control-group, SPV was more comparable to the group's mean SPV. SPV differed between groups. Averaging data resulted in decreased SPV in the CeH-group compared to the control-group during the laptop-task. However, the higher within-group-SPV in the CeH-group compared to the group's mean SPV accentuated more postural heterogeneity. It should be further determined if addressing individual SPV is a relevant intervention.

Habitual Cervical Posture in Women With Episodic Cervicogenic Headache Versus Asymptomatic Controls.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to compare the habitual cervical posture between a headache group and control group by using a (1) relative approach (ratio habitual cervical posture to maximal active cervical flexion) and a (2) longitudinal approach compared with a conventional approach. METHODS: Case-controlled longitudinal (pre-post) comparison of the habitual cervical posture referred to the maximal active cervical flexion between 17 women with secondary episodic cervicogenic headache (23.2 ± 1.8 years) and 17 matched controls (23.6 ± 2.2 years) before and after a desk task. Habitual cervical posture and maximal active cervical flexion were measured with a cervical range of motion device (degrees) before and after a desk task (manually completing the Headache Impact Test-6, 36-Item Short Form Health Survey, and general informative questionnaire during 20 minutes). RESULTS: During the pretest, the headache group differed significantly (P < .05) from the control group by showing a (1) smaller maximal active cervical flexion, and (2) positive correlation (ρ 0.56) between maximal active cervical flexion and the habitual cervical posture. After the desk task, the headache group vs the control group showed a significant (P < .05) (1) habitual cervical posture toward flexion, (2) negative correlation (ρ -0.64) between more cervical flexion at the pretest and a more cervical extension during the post-test, and (3) positive association (P < .001) between a larger habitual cervical posture referred to the maximal active cervical flexion and a higher headache intensity. CONCLUSION: Longitudinal measurements of the ratio habitual cervical posture to the maximal active cervical flexion seem to be more sensitive to capture small cervical postural differences between patients with secondary cervicogenic headache and a control group compared with absolute, cross-sectional measurements.

Response of the autonomic activity to stress provocation in females with cervicogenic headache compared to asymptomatic controls: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Because abnormal activity of the autonomic nervous system is associated with chronification of pain, early detection of such dysfunction is important. AIM: Although several studies highlight autonomic dysfunction in the chronification of headache, no study discussed its role in episodic cervicogenic headache. DESIGN: Case-controlled cross-sectional single-blind comparative study between women with episodic cervicogenic headache and matched controls. SETTING: Outpatient setting, Hasselt University. POPULATION: Autonomic activity of 17 females with episodic cervicogenic headache (26.6±11.6 years) was compared with 17 age, gender and socio-economic matched asymptomatic controls (26.8±11.9 years). METHODS: Autonomic activity was compared via repeated measures of the activity of the dermal sweat glands (µmho), peripheral circulation (%), electrical activity of the bilateral upper trapezius (µV) before, during and after cognitive stress provocation. RESULTS: Whereas the autonomic parameters of the control group behaved as expected, participants in the headache group showed: 1) to stress provocation a significant lower dermal sweat gland activity (3.03±0.44 vs. 4.19±0.91 µmho, P<0.0001), higher vasodilatation (-5.56±1.45% vs. -5.61±1.85%, P=0.03), lower activity of the left upper trapezius (0.21±0.44 vs. 0.89±0.59 µV, P=0.03), significant less recuperation of the dermal sweat gland activity (-2.57±0.40 vs. -3.29±0.84 µmho, P<0.0001); 2) no recuperation of the activity (µV) of the left (P=0.83) and right (P=0.99) upper trapezius; 3) from stress provocation to recuperation a significant negative correlation (ρ=0.69, P=0.04) between dermal sweat gland and right upper trapezius activity. CONCLUSIONS: Females with episodic cervicogenic headache reacted less to cognitive stress provocation. Recuperation after such provocation was absent. More research is needed to associate autonomous responses with a possible chronification process. CLINICAL REHABILITATION IMPACT: A dysfunctional reaction to cognitive stress could be a threat to allostasis.

Effect of play-based family-centered psychomotor/psychosocial stimulation on the development of severely acutely malnourished children under six in a low-income setting: a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends incorporating psychosocial stimulation into the management of severe acute malnutrition (SAM). However, there is little evidence about the effectiveness of these interventions for SAM children, particularly when serious food shortages and lack of a balanced diet prevail. The objective of this study was to examine whether family-based psychomotor/psychosocial stimulation in a low-income setting improves the development, linear growth, and nutritional outcomes in children with SAM. METHOD: Children with SAM (N = 339) admitted for treatment to the Jimma University Specialized Hospital, Ethiopia, were randomized to a control (n = 170) or intervention (n = 169) group. Both groups received routine medical care and nutritional treatment at the hospital. The intervention group additionally received play-based psychomotor/psychosocial stimulation during their hospital stay, and at home for 6 months after being discharged from hospital. The fine motor (FM) and gross motor (GM) functions, language (LA) and personal-social (PS) skills of the children were assessed using adapted Denver II, the social-emotional (SE) behavior was assessed using adapted Ages and Stages Questionnaires: Social-Emotional, and the linear growth and nutritional status were determined through anthropometric assessments. All outcomes were assessed before the intervention, upon discharge from hospital, and 6 months after discharge (as end-line). The overtime changes of these outcomes measured in both groups were compared using Generalized Estimating Equations. RESULTS: The intervention group improved significantly on GM during hospital follow-up by 0.88 points (p < 0.001, effect size = 0.26 SD), and on FM functions during the home follow-up by 1.09 points (p = 0.001, effect size = 0.22 SD). Both young and older children benefited similarly from the treatment. The intervention did not contribute significantly to linear growth and nutritional outcomes. CONCLUSION: Psychomotor/psychosocial stimulation of SAM children enhances improvement in gross motor functions when combined with standard nutrient-rich diets, but it can enhance the fine motor functions even when such standard dietary care is not available. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The trial was retrospectively registered on 30 January 2017 at the US National Institute of Health (ClinicalTrials.gov) # NCT03036176 .

Is There Support for the Paradigm 'Spinal Posture as a Trigger for Episodic Headache'? A Comprehensive Review.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The International Classification of Headache Disorders provides an extensive framework to classify headaches. Physiotherapy is indicated if neuromusculoskeletal dysfunctions are involved in the pathophysiology. Maladaptive postures seem a dominant trigger in tension-type and cervicogenic headache. Yet, outcomes following physiotherapy vary. The absence of protocol studies to identify determinants concerning the role of spinal posture in headache might explain such variability. Hence, multi-dimensional profiling of patients with headache based on interactions between spinal posture, psychosocial and lifestyle factors might be essential. Therefore, the aim of this paper was to perform a comprehensive review to find support for the paradigm of spinal posture triggering episodic headache based on a multi-dimensional view on tension-type and cervicogenic headache including modern pain neuroscience. RECENT FINDINGS: A review was conducted to support spinal posture-induced episodic headache. Pubmed, Web of Science, Pedro and the Cochrane database were explored based on the following 'Mesh' or 'Topics': 'Headache', 'Posture', 'Spine', 'Psychosocial', 'Lifestyle'. The contemporary review of neuroanatomical, biomechanical and non-nociceptive pathways, with integration of modern pain neuroscience in tension-type and cervicogenic headache, supports spinal posture as a trigger for episodic headache. Maladaptive postures can activate C1-C3 nociceptors. Convergence with trigeminal afferents at the trigeminocervical nucleus could explain spinal headache. Interactions with psychosocial and lifestyle factors might contribute to peripheral and central sensitisation. Neuroanatomical, biomechanical and non-nociceptive pathways seem to justify profiling patients based on a postural trigger. Further research is needed to determine the contribution of postural dysfunctions in headache and the effect of specific interventions.

Preclinical Signs of a Temporomandibular Disorder in Female Patients With Episodic Cervicogenic Headache Versus Asymptomatic Controls: A Cross-Sectional Study.

BACKGROUND: The International Classification of Headache Disorders, 3rd Edition, accepted "headache attributed to temporomandibular disorders" as a valid headache. The neurophysiologic interplay between cervical structures and the temporomandibular joint, however, might also suggest that a temporomandibular disorder could develop in patients with cervicogenic headache. OBJECTIVE: To compare the presence of preclinical temporomandibular signs between female patients with episodic cervicogenic headache and a control group. DESIGN: Case-controlled cross-sectional design. SETTING: Institutional setting: Hasselt University. PARTICIPANTS: Twenty-two women (mean age ± SD: 20.7 ± 2.5 years) with episodic cervicogenic headache, without temporomandibular signs and 22 matched (gender, age, level of education, occupation) asymptomatic controls (21 ± 2.3 years). METHODS: (Un)assisted temporomandibular range of motion, pressure pain thresholds, painful palpations were examined and the level of perceived stress was measured. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS: Temporomandibular range of motion (mm), pressure pain thresholds (kPa/cm²), painful palpations (yes/no), and level of perceived stress (Perceived Stress Scale). RESULTS: Maximal mouth-opening was significantly smaller in the headache group (P <.05; effect size [ES] -0.45). Palpation of the masseter resulted in significantly more positive pain responses in the headache group at the left (P = .009; ES ∞) and right (P = .002;ES 17.5) origin, left (P = .004; ES 14.54) and right (P = .03; ES 5.71) body and left (P < .001; ES 12) insertion. Significantly lower pressure pain thresholds on the left and right anterior (P = .03; ES -0.33 resp. P = .02; ES -0.35), central (P = .003; ES 1.02 resp. P = .02; ES 0.79) and right posterior (P = .03; ES 0.62) temporalis and right tibialis anterior (P = .03; ES -0.33) were measured in the headache group. The level of perceived stress was significantly higher (P = .02) in the headache group. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with episodic cervicogenic headache present with signs of a preclinical temporomandibular disorder and sensitization. The smaller range of motion, lower pressure pain thresholds, and higher levels of stress accentuate the multidimensionality of the problem. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: IV.

Pericranial Tenderness in Females With Episodic Cervical Headache vs Asymptomatic Controls: A Cross-sectional Study.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to compare pericranial tenderness of females with episodic cervical headache vs matched asymptomatic controls. METHODS: Through a single-blind, cross-sectional study, pericranial tenderness was compared between 20 females with episodic cervical headaches (29.4 ± 13.2 years) and 20 age-matched female asymptomatic controls (30.1 ± 13.7 years). Pericranial tenderness was bilaterally measured in a headache-free period with the "total tenderness score" (TTS) in the suboccipital, temporal, frontal, masseter, upper trapezius (UT), levator scapula, and sternocleidomastoid (SCM) muscle insertions. Passive cervical mobility, headache intensity, frequency, and duration were secondary outcomes. Analysis was done with a 95% confidence level (SPSS version 22). The Mann-Whitney U-test was used to compare pericranial, cephalic, cervical, and muscle-specific tenderness between groups. Correlations between passive cervical mobility and headache characteristics and the TTS were estimated with Spearman's ρ. RESULTS: The headache group (1.25 ± 0.89) showed a 2 times higher (P < .05) pericranial TTS compared to the control group (0.62 ± 0.70). Higher (P < .05) scores were observed for the left suboccipital, temporal, masseter, UT, levator scapula, and SCM muscles and the right suboccipital, frontal, UT, and levator scapula muscles. Grouping the tenderness scores into cervical (suboccipital, UT, levator scapula, SCM) and cephalic (frontal, temporal, masseter) regions revealed greater scores (P < .05) in the headache group. In the latter, the TTS was significantly positively correlated with passive cervical extension (ρ = 0.78). CONCLUSION: Consistent higher tenderness scores were observed and suggest involvement of sensitization in patients with episodic cervical headaches. A positive correlation was seen between passive cervical extension and sensitivity.

The relationship of undernutrition/psychosocial factors and developmental outcomes of children in extreme poverty in Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Extreme poverty is severe deprivation of basic needs and services. Children living in extreme poverty may lack adequate parental care and face increased developmental and health risks. However, there is a paucity of literature on the combined influences of undernutrition and psychosocial factors (such as limited play materials, playground, playtime, interactions of children with their peers and mother-child interaction) on children's developmental outcomes. The main objective of this study was, therefore, to ascertain the association of developmental outcomes and psychosocial factors after controlling nutritional indices. METHODS: A community-based cross-sectional study design was used to compare the developmental outcomes of extremely poor children (N = 819: 420 girls and 399 boys) younger than 5 years versus age-matched reference children (N = 819: 414 girls and 405 boys) in South-West Ethiopia. Using Denver II-Jimma, development in personal-social, language, fine and gross motor skills were assessed, and social-emotional skills were evaluated using the Ages and Stages Questionnaires: Social-Emotional (ASQ: SE). Nutritional status was derived from the anthropometric method. Independent samples t-test was used to detect mean differences in developmental outcomes between extremely poor and reference children. Multiple linear regression analysis was employed to identify nutritional and psychosocial factors associated with the developmental scores of children in extreme poverty. RESULTS: Children in extreme poverty performed worse in all the developmental domains than the reference children. Among the 819 extremely poor children, 325 (39.7%) were stunted, 135 (16.5%) were underweight and 27 (3.3%) were wasted. The results also disclosed that stunting and underweightness were negatively associated with all the developmental skills. After taking into account the effects of stunting and being underweight on the developmental scores, it was observed that limited play activities, limited child-to-child interactions and mother-child relationships were negatively related mainly to gross motor and language performances of children in extreme poverty. CONCLUSION: Undernutrition and psychosocial factors were negatively related to the developmental outcomes, independently, of children living in extreme poverty. Intervention, for these children, should integrate home-based play-assisted developmental stimulation and nutritional rehabilitation.

Effects of home-based play-assisted stimulation on developmental performances of children living in extreme poverty: a randomized single-blind controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Children living with foster families in a resource-limited setting such as Ethiopia are at risk of developmental problems. It is not yet clear whether intensive home-based developmental stimulation assisted by play can reduce these problems. The main objective of this study was to examine the effects of play-assisted intervention integrated into basic services on the developmental performance of children living with foster families in extreme poverty. METHODS: A randomized single-blind (investigator) controlled trial design was used. The study was conducted in Jimma, South West Ethiopia. Using computer-generated codes, eligible children of 3-59 months in age were randomly allocated to intervention (n = 39) and control (n = 39) groups at a 1:1 ratio. Children in the intervention group received home-based play-assisted stimulation in addition to the basic services provided to children in both groups. The intervention consisted of an hour of play stimulation conducted during a weekly home visit over the course of six months. Personal-social, language, fine and gross motor outcomes were assessed using Denver II-Jimma, and social-emotional outcome was obtained using an adapted Ages and Stages Questionnaire: Social-Emotional (ASQ: SE). Information about sociodemographic characteristics was collected using a structured questionnaire. Anthropometric methods were used to determine nutritional status. The effects of the intervention on the abovementioned outcomes over the study period and group differences in change over time were examined using Generalized Estimating Equations (GEE). RESULTS: Statistically significant intervention effects were found for language (P = 0.0014), personal-social (P = 0.0087) and social-emotional (P <  0.0001) performances. At the midline of the study, language (effect size = 0.34) and social-emotional (effect size = - 0.603) benefits from the play-assisted stimulation had already been observed for the children in the intervention group. For language, the intervention effect depended on the child's sex (P = 0.0100) and for personal-social performance, on family income (P = 0.0300). CONCLUSIONS: Intensive home-based play-assisted stimulation reduced the developmental problems of children in foster families in the context of extreme poverty. Longer follow-up may reveal further improvements in the developmental performance of the children. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The study was retrospectively registered on ClinicalTrials.gov on 17 November 2016, Study Identifier: NCT02988180 .

Developmental performance of hospitalized severely acutely malnourished under-six children in low- income setting.

BACKGROUND: Retrospective studies show that severe acute malnutrition (SAM) affects child development. However, to what extent SAM affects children of different ages at its acute stage is not well documented. This study was aimed at comparing the developmental performance of severely acutely malnourished children under six with that of age and gender-matched non-malnourished healthy children. METHODS: The developmental performances of 310 children with SAM (male = 155, female = 155); mean age = 30.7 mo; SD = 15.2 mo) admitted to the nutritional rehabilitation unit (NRU) at Jimma University's Hospital was compared with that of 310 age and gender-matched, non-malnourished healthy children (male = 155, female = 155; mean age = 29.6 mo; SD = 15.4 mo) living in Jimma Town in Ethiopia. Two culturally adapted tools were used: (1) the Denver II-Jimma, to assess the children's performance on personal social (PS), fine motor (FM) language (LA), gross motor (GM) skills, and (2) the Ages and Stages Questionnaires: Social-Emotional (ASQ:SE), to assess social-emotional (SE) skills. Multivariable Poisson regression analysis was conducted to compare the developmental performance scores of SAM and non-malnourished children. RESULTS: For one-year-old children, SAM delays their developmental performance on GM, FM, PS and LA by 300%, 200%, 140% and 71.4% respectively. For three-years-old children, SAM delays their developmental performance on GM by 80%, on FM and LA by 50% each, and on PS by 28.6%. Of the skills assessed on Denver II-Jimma, GM is the most, and PS is the least affected. Younger SAM children are more affected than older ones on all the domains of development. The delay in FM, GM, LA and PS generally decreases with an increase in age. Social-emotional behavior problems seem to be most pronounced in the very young and older age ranges. CONCLUSIONS: SAM has a differential age effect on the different dimensions of development in children under 6 years of age.