Origin and distribution of Daltonism in Italy.

A research project was started in Italy in order to map dyschromatopsies in this country. Field data was collected by the authors in Liguria, Veneto, Emilia-Romagna, Apulia, Sicily, and by other authors in Lazio, Calabria, Basilicata, and Sardinia. The samples were all composed of more than 500 male subjects, of homogeneous origin, and assessed using the Ishihara (1973) and the Farnsworth (1947) tests. Statistical analysis identified two groups showing different mean percentages: one, coastal (n = 13,091; 6.50%) and the other, inland (n = 17,881; 5.21%). The results stimulated an ecological-ergonomic hypothesis based on nutrition (i.e., food gathering strategies) and the kind of light prevailing in the habitat. If trichromacy has been brought about by frugivore feeding (Polyach, 1957), dichromacy may have been maintained by giving a selective advantage to fishermen (originally fishing one fish at a time by hand). This is valid for both sea or fresh water habitats, characterized by blue-green prevailing light and with sharp discrimination for blue-gray shapes and colors (usually, 70% of dichromats are deutans). To support this hypothesis a field survey was carried out among 661 Sicilian traditional fishermen, which furnished the highest rates of dyschromatopsia in Italy: 7.90%. In conclusion, we can hypothesize that endogamous fishermen groups bordering the coastal areas of continents, searching for waters abounding in fish, could have determined a greater incidence of color blindness in the coastal regions, while exogamous marriages between fishermen and peasants contributed to the lower diffusion of the genes responsible in inland areas.

Colour blindness in Italian art high school students.

To highlight the link between colour blindness and school achievement, the Ishihara and Farnsworth tests were administered to 3,565 high school art students (2,545 girls and 1,020 boys). Analysis showed colour defective students were discriminated against in theoretical subject matter, relative to orthochromate students, but not in the art-related subjects. This emphasizes the need to recognize youth with colour defective vision early.

Congenital dyschromatopsia and school achievement.

In 1993-94, in Liguria (a northwestern Italian region) a study was carried out on dyschromatopsia, a congenital sex-linked form of colour blindness. 3124 junior high school boys aged 10-15 years were tested using Ishihara plates (1973 edition) and Farnsworth's D-15 test (1947 edition). 152 students were identified as colour blind (4.87%), a value slightly below the Italian average of 5.3%. The school achievement of these students was assessed by means of the school marks of two randomised subsamples composed of 82 dyschromates and 82 orthochromates, paired homogeneously by age and class. Statistical analysis indicated significantly lower general school achievement for the 82 dyschromate subjects (except for art). The learning difficulties of dyschromate persons for whom colour is a basic didactic tool are discussed. Introduction of dyschromatopsia tests at preschool would be desirable.

[Female fertility in Algeria: biodemographic and psychosocial aspects]. / La fecondita della donna ad Algeri: aspetti biodemografici e psicosociali.

PIP: The survey was completed in the Mustafa Hospital of Algiers in the obstetrical-gynecological ward by administering 3 questionnaires dealing with anthropological, socioeconomic, and demographic information to women who were under 55 years old with at least 1 child and who presented at the ward during July 28-August 31, 1988. A total of 239 women with an average age of 30.9 years were interviewed in French. 82% had some education. A subgroup of 40 women were also queried about reproduction to gather psychosocial information. The age at first marriage averaged 20.8 years for the whole group, while 42% got married before 19 years old. Women who were 40-55 years old had an average number of 6.1 live births. Women 25-39 years old who got married at the age of 15-19 had an average of 4.2 live births, while women of the same who were married after 25 years old had only 1.9 births. In the 25-39 age group, illiterate women had 5 live births, those with elementary school had 3.5 births, those with secondary school had 2.4 births, and college or university educated women had 1.7 births. Most women preferred a partner from their own ethnic group. 66% of marriages were amongst Arabs and 77% amongst Kabils or Berbers. Consanguineous marriages constituted 16.7% among Arabs, and 27% among Kabils. Polygyny amounted to 11.1% among the Arabs, and 19.1% among the Kabils. The age at menarche was 14.3 +or- 1.5 years. 7.5% of women used the IUD, 42.7% used oral contraceptives, and a total of 66% stated that they used some kind of contraceptive. The reasons for nonuse of contraception were the desire to have children (35 women or 15%) and the husband's opposition (9 women, 3.8%). The psychosocial views of 40 subjects regarding reproduction generally agreed with previous opinions. The findings confirm the demographic change that has been substantiated in the country recently.^ieng

Female circumcision in Somalia: anthropological traits.

In 1981, 2497 subjects (comprising women and girls) were interviewed in Somalia, mostly in Mogadish, about female circumcision. In this study there are presented the principle cultural trends which are connected with the custom and which have arisen from the research. Even today, the practice of female circumcision is universal in Somalia; the percentage of circumcised women was 99.3%. Infibulation is the commonest type of circumcision used (75.7%). The age of circumcision varies from birth to 15; the average being 7.5. The type of circumcision does not seem to be influenced by some environmental variables (e.g. birth place of parents or place of circumcision), it is primarily determined by the population of the individual region. Infibulation is accepted to the greatest extent by the pastoral populations of the middle/northern regions, principally in Ogaden and in the 4 Somalian regions on which it borders: Togdheer, Nugal, Muddug, Galgadud. In the southern regions (Upper, Middle, Lower Giuba) amongst rural populations or populations with a cattle/cultivation economy, there are also attenuated types of circumcision: sunna and clitoridectomia (20 to 30%). The evolution of the practice was studied by data of the subjects, of their mothers and of their daughters. From this analysis there was no indication toward non-circumcision. There is, however, a movement towards the attenuated forms of circumcision. The fundamental key to such an attenuated operation for a child seems to be the presence of the same attenuation in previous generations.