Clinical significance of scalp abnormalities in asymptomatic head-injured infants.

OBJECTIVES: 1) To identify clinical features indicating a high risk of skull fracture (SF) and associated intracranial injury (ICI) in asymptomatic head-injured infants. 2) To develop a clinical decision rule to determine which asymptomatic head-injured infants require head imaging. METHODS: We performed a prospective cohort study of all asymptomatic head-injured infants 0-24 months of age presenting to the emergency department of an urban children's hospital. Infants were considered asymptomatic if they had no clinical signs of brain injury, or of basilar or depressed SF. Among subjects who had head imaging, we assessed the utility of age, scalp hematoma size, and scalp hematoma location for predicting SF and ICI. RESULTS: Of 422 study patients, 45 (11 %) were diagnosed with SF and 13 (3%) with ICI. In the 172 subjects who had head imaging, there was a stepwise relationship between hematoma size and likelihood of SF. Parietal and temporal hematomas were highly associated with SF; frontal hematomas were not. There was a trend toward higher rates of SF in younger patients. Both large scalp hematoma and parietal hematoma were associated with ICI. Using these data, we developed a clinical decision rule to determine which asymptomatic infants need head imaging. In our study population, this rule has a sensitivity of 0.98 and specificity of 0.49 for SF, and it detects all 13 cases of ICI. The clinical rule calls for imaging in 146/422 (35%) study subjects. CONCLUSIONS: Among asymptomatic head-injured infants, the risk of SF and associated ICI is correlated with scalp hematoma size, hematoma location, and weakly with patient age. We propose a clinical decision rule that could identify most cases of SF and ICI while not requiring head imaging for most patients. This decision rule should be validated in other study populations.

Evaluation and management of children younger than two years old with apparently minor head trauma: proposed guidelines.

OBJECTIVE: In children <2 years old, minor head trauma (HT) is a common injury that can result in skull fracture and intracranial injury (ICI). These injuries can be difficult to detect in this age group; therefore, many authors recommend a low threshold for radiographic imaging. Currently, no clear guidelines exist regarding the evaluation and management of head-injured infants. We sought to develop guidelines for management based on data and expert opinion that would enable clinicians to identify children with complications of HT and reduce unnecessary imaging procedures. METHODS. EVIDENCE: References addressing pediatric HT were generated from a computerized database (Medline). The articles were reviewed and evidence tables were compiled. EXPERT PANEL: The multidisciplinary panel was comprised of nine experts in pediatric HT. CONSENSUS PROCESS: A modified Delphi technique was used to develop the guidelines. Before the one meeting, panel members reviewed the evidence and formulated answers to specific clinical questions regarding HT in young children. At the meeting, guidelines were formulated based on data and expert consensus. RESULTS: A management strategy was developed that categorizes children into 4 subgroups, based on risk of ICI. Children in the high-risk group should undergo a computed tomography (CT) scan. Those in the intermediate risk group with symptoms of possible ICI should either undergo CT scan or observation. Those in the intermediate risk group with some risk for skull fracture or ICI should undergo CT and/or skull radiographs or observation. Those in the low-risk group require no radiographic imaging. CONCLUSIONS: We have developed a guideline for the evaluation of children <2 years old with minor HT. The effect of these guidelines on clinical outcomes and resource utilization should be evaluated.

Accuracy of a noninvasive temporal artery thermometer for use in infants.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the accuracy of a new noninvasive temporal artery (TA) thermometer in infants; to compare the accuracy of the TA thermometer with that of a tympanic thermometer, using rectal thermometry as the criterion standard; and to compare the tolerability of the TA thermometer with that of the tympanic and rectal thermometers. DESIGN: Prospective evaluation of the accuracy of TA and tympanic thermometry, using rectal thermometry as the criterion standard. SETTING: Emergency department of an urban pediatric hospital. SUBJECTS: Convenience sample of 304 infants younger than 1 year presenting for care. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Temperatures were measured using TA, tympanic, and rectal thermometers for all infants. Agreement between TA or tympanic and rectal temperatures was assessed. The sensitivity and specificity of TA or tympanic thermometers for detecting rectal fever were determined. Discomfort scores, using a standardized scale, were assessed by trained observers after each temperature measurement was made. RESULTS: Linear regression analysis of the relation between TA and rectal temperatures yielded a model with a slope of 0.79 (vs a slope of 0.68 for tympanic vs rectal temperature; P =.02) and an r of 0.83 (vs r = 0.75 for tympanic vs rectal temperature; P<.001). Among 109 patients with a rectal temperature of 38 degrees C or higher, the TA thermometer had a sensitivity of 0.66 compared with the tympanic thermometer's sensitivity of 0.49 (P<.001). Discomfort scores with TA thermometry were significantly lower than with rectal thermometry (P =.007). CONCLUSIONS: The TA thermometer has limited sensitivity for detecting cases of rectal fever in infants. However, the TA thermometer is more accurate than the tympanic thermometer in infants, and it is better tolerated by infants than rectal thermometry.

Pediatric minor head trauma.

Head trauma is one of the most common childhood injuries, annually accounting for more than 500,000 emergency department visits, 95,000 hospital admissions, 7,000 deaths, and 29,000 permanent disabilities; hospital care costs alone exceed $1 billion annually. The majority of patients have minor head trauma, and, although most of these injuries are insignificant, minor head trauma causes a large number of intracranial injuries. The largest reduction in head trauma mortality rates results from preventing deterioration and secondary brain injury in patients with minor or moderate head injuries who initially appear to be at low risk. The goal of the clinician, therefore, is to identify those at risk for intracranial injury and subsequent deterioration, while limiting unnecessary imaging procedures. This article reviews the current data and practice in assessing and treating minor head trauma in children.

Gender differences in rates of unintentional head injury in the first 3 months of life.

OBJECTIVES: To assess for gender differences in rates of unintentional head injury in infants less than 3 months of age, to assess the circumstances of injury in these patients, and to look for gender-related differences in these circumstances. METHODS: Two separate databases were analyzed. 1) The National Pediatric Trauma Registry (NPTR) was queried for all patients < or = 90 days of age who had been diagnosed with unintentional head trauma between 1990 and 1999. The proportion of males was compared to the expected proportion of 51%, derived from US census data. 2) A prospective cohort of 88 infants < or = 90 days of age who had been treated for unintentional head trauma in an urban pediatric emergency department (ED) was studied. Circumstances of injury and gender-related differences in these circumstances were assessed. RESULTS: In the NPTR database, 600 of 1072 (56%) (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.53, 0.59) infants < or = 90 days of age were boys (P =.001). In the ED cohort, 54 of 88 (62%) (95% CI 0.50, 0.72) subjects were boys (P =.06). In virtually all of the cases described, subjects appeared to be passive participants in the injury. The most commonly reported circumstances of injury were the following: "child left alone on furniture and fell" (n = 39) or "parent dropped child" (n = 27). Boys accounted for 20 (74%) of the subjects in the "parent dropped child" group (P =.04). CONCLUSIONS: Boys outnumber girls among infants less than 3 months of age with unintentional head trauma. These young infants appear to be passive participants in their injuries, which indicates that differences in parenting practices may account for the observed gender differences.

Potential impact of a computerized system to report late-arriving laboratory results in the emergency department.

BACKGROUND: Results of some laboratory tests for Emergency Department (ED) patients return hours to days after the patient is discharged. Inadequate follow-up for these late-arriving results poses medical and legal risks. We have developed, but not yet implemented, a computerized system called the Automated Late-Arriving Results Monitoring System (ALARMS). ALARMS scans the hospital's laboratory and ED registration databases to generate an electronic daily log of all late-arriving abnormal laboratory results for ED patients. OBJECTIVE: To determine the potential impact of ALARMS by assessing our ED's current quality of documented follow-up of late-arriving laboratory results. METHODS: We applied ALARMS retrospectively, to find all abnormal late-arriving laboratory results returned between 5/1/96 and 4/30/98 for ED patients for the following three tests: serum lead levels, Chlamydia cultures, or urine pregnancy tests. Medical records were reviewed for documentation of follow-up, which was considered appropriate if a clinician noted the abnormal result and documented a follow-up plan within 1 week after the result became available. Medical records were also reviewed for any evidence of complications attributable to delayed or inadequate follow-up. RESULTS: Over the 2-year study period, no appropriate follow-up was documented in 6/18 (33%) cases of elevated lead levels, 3/4 (75%) cases of late-arriving positive pregnancy tests, and 23/39 (59%) cases of positive Chlamydia cultures. One case of a positive Chlamydia culture, for which there was no documented follow-up, was associated with subsequent development of pelvic inflammatory disease. CONCLUSION: Our current system of documented follow-up for late-arriving laboratory results has deficiencies. ALARMS, a computerized system of alerts for emergency physicians, has the potential to substantially improve documented follow-up of late-arriving laboratory results in the ED.

Biphasic anaphylactic reactions in pediatrics.

OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this study were to: 1) determine the incidence of biphasic reactions in children with anaphylaxis; 2) establish what risk factors can predict progression to a biphasic reaction; and 3) assess the utility of inpatient observation for patients whose anaphylaxis appears to have resolved. METHODS: We performed a retrospective analysis of all children admitted to Children's Hospital inpatient service between 1985 and 1999 with acute anaphylaxis. Data were collected from the medical records regarding past medical history, presenting signs and symptoms, treatment, and hospital course. Patients were considered to have resolution of anaphylaxis if they were documented to have cessation of all symptoms and needed no therapy for at least 1 hour. Biphasic reactions were defined as a worsening of symptoms requiring new therapy after resolution of anaphylaxis. Significant biphasic reactions were defined as those requiring oxygen, vasopressors, intubation, subcutaneous epinephrine, or unscheduled bronchodilator treatments. Patients were considered to benefit from a 24-hour observation period if they had a significant biphasic reaction within 24 hours of admission. RESULTS: Of 108 anaphylactic episodes, 2 (2%) were fatal, and 1 (1%) was a protracted anaphylactic reaction. Among the remaining 105 children with resolution of anaphylaxis, 6 (6%) [95% confidence (CI): 2, 12] had biphasic reactions, of which 3 (3%) [95% CI:.6, 8] were significant. Of those who had a biphasic reactions, the median time from the onset of symptoms to the initial administration of subcutaneous epinephrine was 190 minutes, versus 48 minutes for those without a biphasic reaction. Patients with or without biphasic reactions did not differ significantly in the incidence of initial epinephrine use, initial steroid use, or serious respiratory or cardiovascular symptoms on initial presentation. Two of 105 (2%) [95% CI:.2, 7] patients clinically benefitted from a 24-hour observation period. CONCLUSIONS: We found an overall incidence of biphasic reactions of 6%, and an incidence of significant biphasic reactions of 3%, among pediatric patients admitted with anaphylaxis. Delayed administration of subcutaneous epinephrine was associated with an increased incidence of biphasic reactions. Approximately 2% of patients with anaphylaxis potentially benefitted from a 24-hour period of observation after symptoms had resolved.

Clinical indicators of intracranial injury in head-injured infants.

OBJECTIVES: 1) To determine whether clinical signs of brain injury are sensitive indicators of intracranial injury (ICI) in head-injured infants. 2) To determine whether radiographic imaging of otherwise asymptomatic infants with scalp hematoma is a useful means of detecting cases of ICI. 3) To determine whether head-injured infants without signs of brain injury or scalp hematoma may be safely managed without radiographic imaging. METHODS: We performed a 1-year prospective study of all infants younger than 2 years of age presenting to a pediatric emergency department with head trauma. Data were collected on historical features, physical findings, radiographic findings, and hospital course. Follow-up telephone calls were made 2 weeks after discharge to assess for any late deterioration. RESULTS: Of 608 study subjects, 30 (5%) had ICI; 12/92 (13%) infants 0 to 2 months of age had ICI, compared with 13/224 (6%) infants 3 to 11 months of age, and 5/292 (2%) infants 12 months of age or older. Only 16/30 (52%) subjects with ICI had at least one of the following clinical symptoms or signs of brain injury: loss of consciousness, history of behavior change, seizures, emesis, depressed mental status, irritability, bulging fontanel, focal neurologic findings, or vital signs indicating increased intracranial pressure. Of the 14 asymptomatic subjects with ICI, 13 (93%) had significant scalp hematoma. Among subjects who had head computed tomography, significant scalp hematoma had an odds ratio of 2.78 (95% confidence interval: 1.15,6.70) for association with ICI. A total of 265 subjects (43%) were asymptomatic and had no significant scalp hematoma. None (95% confidence interval: 0,1.2%) required specific therapy or had any subsequent clinical deterioration. CONCLUSIONS: Clinical signs of brain injury are insensitive indicators of ICI in infants. A substantial fraction of infants with ICI will be detected through radiographic imaging of otherwise asymptomatic infants with significant scalp hematomas. Asymptomatic infants older than 3 months of age who have no significant scalp hematoma may be safely managed without radiographic imaging.

Low risk of bacteremia in febrile children with recognizable viral syndromes.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies of occult bacteremia in febrile children have excluded patients with recognizable viral syndromes (RVS). There is little information in the literature regarding the rate of bacteremia in febrile children with RVS. OBJECTIVE: To determine the rate of bacteremia in children 3 to 36 months of age with fever and RVS. METHODS: We performed a retrospective analysis of all patients 3 to 36 months of age with a temperature > or =39 degrees C seen during a 5 1/2-year period in the Emergency Department of a tertiary care pediatric hospital. From this group those with a discharge diagnosis of croup, varicella, bronchiolitis or stomatitis and no apparent concomitant bacterial infection were considered to have an RVS. The rate of bacteremia was determined for those subjects with RVS who had blood cultures. RESULTS: Of 21,216 patients 3 to 36 months of age with a temperature > or =39 degrees C, 1347 (6%) were diagnosed with an RVS. Blood cultures were obtained in 876 (65%) of RVS patients. Of patients who had blood cultures, true pathogens were found in only 2 of 876 (0.2%) subjects with RVS [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.01, 0.8%]. The rate of bacteremia was 1 of 411 (0.2%) for subjects with bronchiolitis, O of 249 (0%) for subjects with croup, O of 123 (0%) for subjects with stomatitis and 1 of 93 (1.1%) for subjects with varicella. CONCLUSIONS: Highly febrile children 3 to 36 months of age with uncomplicated croup, bronchiolitis, varicella or stomatitis have a very low rate of bacteremia and need not have blood drawn for culture.

Occult intracranial injury in infants.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this study were as follows: (1) to determine whether clinical symptoms and signs of brain injury are sensitive indicators of intracranial injury (ICI) in infants admitted with head trauma, (2) to describe the clinical characteristics of infants who have ICI in the absence of symptoms and signs of brain injury, and (3) to determine the clinical significance of those ICIs diagnosed in asymptomatic infants. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective analysis of all infants younger than 2 years of age admitted to a tertiary care pediatric hospital with acute ICI during a 6(1/2)-year period. Infants were considered symptomatic if they had loss of consciousness, history of behavior change, seizures, vomiting, bulging fontanel, retinal hemorrhages, abnormal neurologic examination, depressed mental status, or irritability. All others were considered to have occult ICI. RESULTS: Of 101 infants studied, 19 (19%; 95% confidence interval [CI] 12%, 28%) had occult ICI. Fourteen of 52 (27%) infants younger than 6 months of age had occult ICI, compared with 5 of 34 (15%) infants 6 months to 1 year, and none of 15 (0%) infants older than 1 year. Eighteen (95%) infants with occult ICI had scalp contusion or hematoma, and 18 (95%) had skull fracture. Nine (47%) infants with occult ICI received therapy for the ICI. No infants with occult ICI (0%) (95% CI 0, 14%) required surgery or medical management for increased intracranial pressure. Only 1 subject (5%) with occult ICI had any late symptoms or complications: a brief, self-limited convulsion. CONCLUSION: We found that 19 of 101 ICIs in infants admitted with head trauma were clinically occult. All 19 occult ICIs occurred in infants younger than 12 months of age, and 18 of 19 had skull fractures. None experienced serious neurologic deterioration or required surgical intervention. Physicians cannot depend on the absence of clinical signs of brain injury to exclude ICI in infants younger than 1 year of age.

Infants with isolated skull fracture: what are their clinical characteristics, and do they require hospitalization?

STUDY OBJECTIVE: We sought to identify the historical factors and physical examination findings typical of infants who have sustained isolated skull fracture (ISF)--in the absence of associated intracranial injury--after head trauma. We also assessed the risk of clinical deterioration (and therefore the need for inpatient observation) in infants with ISF. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective analysis of all patients younger than 2 years admitted to a tertiary care pediatric hospital with a diagnosis of ISF over a 3-year period. RESULTS: During the study period, 101 infants with radiographically proven ISF were admitted to the hospital. Falls were the most common reported mechanism of injury (n = 90 [89%]). Many falls involved short distances: 18 patients (18%) fell less than 3 feet. Nonaccidental trauma was suspected in only 10 patients (10%). Seventy-two patients (71%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 61%, 79%) had at least one of the clinical signs considered potential indicators of serious head injury: initial loss of consciousness, seizures, vomiting, lethargy, irritability, depressed mental status, and focal neurologic findings. In 97 patients (96%; 95% CI, 89%, 98%), local findings of head injury (palpable fracture, soft-tissue swelling, or signs of basilar skull fracture) were noted on physical examination. None of the patients (0%; 95% CI, 0%, 3%) demonstrated clinical decline during hospitalization. All were neurologically normal on discharge. CONCLUSION: A diagnosis of ISF should be considered even in infants with minor mechanisms of head injury who appear well. However, infants with ISF rarely present without local signs of head injury on physical examination. If no other specific clinical concerns necessitate hospital admission, infants with ISF who have reliable caretakers may be considered for discharge home.

Costs of poison-related hospitalizations at an urban teaching hospital for children.

BACKGROUND: Childhood poisonings continue to exact a notable toll in injury-related morbidity and economic cost. Because a substantial portion of this morbidity and economic cost is associated with hospitalization, an analysis of the cost of poisoning hospitalizations might help to identify areas in which medical care could be improved and costs could be reduced. OBJECTIVE: To assess the aggregate cost of poison-related hospitalizations and to analyze the trends in categorical poisoning costs during a 4-year period. DESIGN: Cost-benefit analysis of charge data and length of stay (LOS) for poison-related hospitalizations. SETTING: Admissions to one urban children's hospital. PATIENTS: Case mix data were reviewed to identify those children whose hospitalizations had a primary discharge diagnosis related to poisoning in fiscal years 1992 to 1995. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Mean aggregate hospital charges and LOS for poisonings were compared for each of the 4 years of the study. Comparisons were also made with charges and LOS for hospitalizations for all other diagnoses during the same period. Trends in hospital charges and LOS for the most common specific types of poisoning were analyzed individually. Linear regression statistics were used to compare the costs and LOS of specific types of poisoning. RESULTS: There were 638 poison-related hospitalizations during the 4-year study (0.9% of all pediatric hospital admissions). Charges per case decreased from $7934 in fiscal year 1992 to $4968 in fiscal year 1995 (z = -2.74, P = .006); mean LOS decreased from 5.85 days in 1992 to 3.45 days in 1995 (z = 2.84, P = .005). These trends exceeded smaller trends toward decreasing charges and LOS seen also for non-poison-related hospitalizations. Acetaminophen, lead, and antidepressant medications were the most common and most costly specific agents implicated in poison-related hospitalizations during the study period. Linear regression analysis showed a significant decrease in charges (F = 6.35, R2 = 0.09, P = .014) and LOS for acetaminophen (F = 4.30, R2 = 0.063, P < .04) but not for lead or antidepressant poison-related hospitalizations. CONCLUSIONS: Despite an increasing number of children hospitalized for poisoning at one institution during a 4-year period, per case hospital charges decreased substantially. The cost savings were associated with a marked decrease in LOS. Still, poison-related admissions to a single pediatric facility accounted for almost $1 million in hospital charges in fiscal year 1995. A few agents are overrepresented; new poisoning prevention measures aimed at these toxic agents are warranted. We conclude that further outcomes studies are needed to delineate cost-effective improvements in patient care targeted toward poisonings owing to those agents.

The relationship of depression to dissociation in patients with bulimia nervosa.

Dissociative Experiences Survey scores were compared between bulimics with and without depression, and among depressed patients with and without bulimia. An association is noted between depression and dissociation, confounding the previously noted relationship between bulimia nervosa and dissociation.