An overlooked mechanism underlying the attenuated temperature response of soil heterotrophic respiration.

Biogeochemical reactions occurring in soil pore space underpin gaseous emissions measured at macroscopic scales but are difficult to quantify due to their complexity and heterogeneity. We develop a volumetric-average method to calculate aerobic respiration rates analytically from soil with microscopic soil structure represented explicitly. Soil water content in the model is the result of the volumetric-average of the microscopic processes, and it is nonlinearly coupled with temperature and other factors. Since many biogeochemical reactions are driven by oxygen (O2) which must overcome various resistances before reaching reactive microsites from the atmosphere, the volumetric-average results in negative feedback between temperature and soil respiration, with the magnitude of the feedback increasing with soil water content and substrate quality. Comparisons with various experiments show the model reproduces the variation of carbon dioxide emission from soils under different water content and temperature gradients, indicating that it captures the key microscopic processes underpinning soil respiration. We show that alongside thermal microbial adaptation, substrate heterogeneity and microbial turnover and carbon use efficiency, O2 dissolution and diffusion in water associated with soil pore space is another key explanation for the attenuated temperature response of soil respiration and should be considered in developing soil organic carbon models.

High yielding biomass genotypes of willow (Salix spp.) show differences in below ground biomass allocation.

Willows (Salix spp.) grown as short rotation coppice (SRC) are viewed as a sustainable source of biomass with a positive greenhouse gas (GHG) balance due to their potential to fix and accumulate carbon (C) below ground. However, exploiting this potential has been limited by the paucity of data available on below ground biomass allocation and the extent to which it varies between genotypes. Furthermore, it is likely that allocation can be altered considerably by environment. To investigate the role of genotype and environment on allocation, four willow genotypes were grown at two replicated field sites in southeast England and west Wales, UK. Above and below ground biomass was intensively measured over two two-year rotations. Significant genotypic differences in biomass allocation were identified, with below ground allocation differing by up to 10% between genotypes. Importantly, the genotype with the highest below ground biomass also had the highest above ground yield. Furthermore, leaf area was found to be a good predictor of below ground biomass. Growth environment significantly impacted allocation; the willow genotypes grown in west Wales had up to 94% more biomass below ground by the end of the second rotation. A single investigation into fine roots showed the same pattern with double the volume of fine roots present. This greater below ground allocation may be attributed primarily to higher wind speeds, plus differences in humidity and soil characteristics. These results demonstrate that the capacity exists to breed plants with both high yields and high potential for C accumulation.

Isotope fractionation factors controlling isotopocule signatures of soil-emitted N2O produced by denitrification processes of various rates.

RATIONALE: This study aimed (i) to determine the isotopic fractionation factors associated with N2O production and reduction during soil denitrification and (ii) to help specify the factors controlling the magnitude of the isotope effects. For the first time the isotope effects of denitrification were determined in an experiment under oxic atmosphere and using a novel approach where N2O production and reduction occurred simultaneously. METHODS: Soil incubations were performed under a He/O2 atmosphere and the denitrification product ratio [N2O/(N2 + N2O)] was determined by direct measurement of N2 and N2O fluxes. N2O isotopocules were analyzed by mass spectrometry to determine δ(18)O, δ(15)N and (15)N site preference within the linear N2O molecule (SP). An isotopic model was applied for the simultaneous determination of net isotope effects (η) of both N2O production and reduction, taking into account emissions from two distinct soil pools. RESULTS: A clear relationship was observed between (15)N and (18)O isotope effects during N2O production and denitrification rates. For N2O reduction, diverse isotope effects were observed for the two distinct soil pools characterized by different product ratios. For moderate product ratios (from 0.1 to 1.0) the range of isotope effects given by previous studies was confirmed and refined, whereas for very low product ratios (below 0.1) the net isotope effects were much smaller. CONCLUSIONS: The fractionation factors associated with denitrification, determined under oxic incubation, are similar to the factors previously determined under anoxic conditions, hence potentially applicable for field studies. However, it was shown that the η(18)O/η(15)N ratios, previously accepted as typical for N2O reduction processes (i.e., higher than 2), are not valid for all conditions.

Carbon Sequestration by Perennial Energy Crops: Is the Jury Still Out?

Soil organic carbon (SOC) changes associated with land conversion to energy crops are central to the debate on bioenergy and their potential carbon neutrality. Here, the experimental evidence on SOC under perennial energy crops (PECs) is synthesised to parameterise a whole systems model and to identify uncertainties and knowledge gaps determining PECs being a sink or source of greenhouse gas (GHG). For Miscanthus and willow (Salix spp.) and their analogues (switchgrass, poplar), we examine carbon (C) allocation to above- and belowground residue inputs, turnover rates and retention in the soil. A meta-analysis showed that studies on dry matter partitioning and C inputs to soils are plentiful, whilst data on turnover are rare and rely on few isotopic C tracer studies. Comprehensive studies on SOC dynamics and GHG emissions under PECs are limited and subsoil processes and C losses through leaching remain unknown. Data showed dynamic changes of gross C inputs and SOC stocks depending on stand age. C inputs and turnover can now be specifically parameterised in whole PEC system models, whilst dependencies on soil texture, moisture and temperature remain empirical. In conclusion, the annual net SOC storage change exceeds the minimum mitigation requirement (0.25 Mg C ha-1 year-1) under herbaceous and woody perennials by far (1.14 to 1.88 and 0.63 to 0.72 Mg C ha-1 year-1, respectively). However, long-term time series of field data are needed to verify sustainable SOC enrichment, as the physical and chemical stabilities of SOC pools remain uncertain, although they are essential in defining the sustainability of C sequestration (half-life >25 years).